






























































Glass—X3 ^ 

Book_ Q S l — 


















X 









f 










Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 194 


Series L, Quality of Water, 20 


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Director 


'OLLUTION OF ILLINOIS AND MISSISSIPPI 
RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 


A DIGEST OE THE TESTIMONY TAKEN IN THE CASE 
OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI Y. THE STATE 
OF ILLINOIS AND THE SANITARY 
DISTRICT OF CHICAGO 


■ 

BY 



MARSHALL 


O. LEIGHTON 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

10 0 7 


&*ograj* 










> 




Water-Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 194 


Senes L, Quality of Water, 20 


DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 

UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

CHARLES D. WALCOTT, Director 

- 

■ ' 

POLLUTION OF ILLINOIS AND MISSISSIPPI 
RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 


A DIGEST OF THE TESTIMONY TAKEN IN THE CASE 
OF THE STATE OF MISSOURI V. THE STATE 
OF ILLINOIS AND THE SANITARY 
DISTRICT OF CHICAGO 


BY 


MARSHALL O. LEIGHTON 

u 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTIN G/ OFFICE 

1907 

2d 5eX 


i > 





.o 




JUN 5 1907 

D. uf 0. 


• • 

• w 

• • * 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 


Object of the paper. 5 

Statements of parties to the suit. 0 

Bill of complaint.'. 0 

Answer of the defendants. 7 

Witnesses and counsel. 9 

Typhoid fever in the Mississippi Valley. 10 

Testimony for plaintiff. H 

Benezette Williams. 11 

J. L. Van Ornum... 10 

Amand Nicholas Bavold. 19 

William C. Teichmann...:. 47 

Edward H. Reiser. 74 

George Chandler Whipple. 92 

Allen Hazen. 103 

William Thompson Sedgwick.*. 100 

George W. Fuller..•. 124 

Gardner S. Williams.•.. 133 

Testimony for defendants....■_.. 143 

C. G. Herget. 144 

Peter Casey. 144 

Adolph Woolner, jr. 145 

Isham Randolph.;. 145 

Rudolph Hering. 152 

Jacob A. Harman. 158 

John H. Long. 158 

Adolph Gehrmann. 181 

Arthur W. Palmer. 187 

Thomas J. Burrill. 203 

Edwin Oakes Jordan. 207 

Ludwig Hektoen. 246 

H. L. Russell. 246 

E. G. Hastings. 258 

F. Robert Zeit. 259 

Robert Spurr Weston. 271 

William Pitt Mason. 275 

Leonard P. Kinnicutt. 283 

Theobald Smith. 288 

Erastus G. Smith. 290 

George Dock. 296 

Lewellys F. Barker. 301 

Victor C. Vaughan. 303 

William S. Thayer. 305 

John W. Hill. 306 


3 















































4 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Testimony in rebuttal for plaintiff.- * ^18 

Edward W. Saunders. 318 

Washington E. Fischel. 319 

Ludwig Bremer, Albert E. Taussig, and C. H. Goodman. 321 

Herbert Smith. 321 

John W. Alvord. 330 

E. E. Lochridge. 339 

William Thompson Sedgwick., - - - 347 

Decision of the Supreme Court. 351 

Index. 357 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate I. Diagram showing stage of Mississippi and Missouri rivers at St. 

Louis, percentage of Mississippi River water flowing into intake, 

and number of typhoid-fever cases at St. Louis, in 1900. 44 

II. Profile of waterway along the Chicago drainage canal, Desplaines 
River, Illinois River, and Mississippi River, from Lake Michigan 

to St. Louis, Mo.. 150 

Fig. 1. Diagram showing average chlorine in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, 

May and June, 1899 and 1900. 214 

2. Diagram showing average albuminoid ammonia in Desplaines and 

Illinois rivers, May and June, 1899 and 1900. 215 

3. Diagram showing average free ammonia in Desplaines and Illinois 

rivers, May and June, 1899 and 1900. 215 

4. Diagram showing average bacteria in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, 

May and June, 1899 and 1900. 216 

5. Diagram showing bacteria in Mississippi and Illinois rivers at Grafton, 

Ill., May 24, 1899, to June 29, 1900. 216 





















POLLUTION OF ILLINOIS AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS 

RY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


By M. O. Leighton. 

INTRODUCTION. 

OBJECT OF THE PAPER. 

% 

The testimony taken in the suit of the State of Missouri against 
the State of Illinois and the sanitary district of Chicago comprises 
the best symposium on river pollution, its biological and chemical 
aspects, and its general and special sanitary significance that has ever 
been assembled. The contentions of both parties to the suit are 
supported by the most eminently qualified men in the United States. 
The evidence presented and the discussions recorded are therefore of 
unique importance. The final record of testimony occupies 8,000 
printed pages, much of which is irrelevant. This digest of testimony 
is the result of an attempt to recover the valuable material and pre¬ 
sent it in concise form. A consistent endeavor has been made by 
the reviewer to eliminate all personal opinions with reference to the 
issue and to make an impartial presentation of so much of the testi¬ 
mony as in his opinion appears to be relevant and of scientific 
importance. It will be well to remember in this connection that any 
digest of so large a volume of testimony must be the result of a final 
exercise of personal opinion by the reviewer as to those parts which 
may best be excluded. Naturally opinions will differ on this point; 
therefore it will be strange if many of those familiar with the case do 
not find that certain portions of testimony which they consider most 
important are passed over in this digest without reference. Contro¬ 
versies between counsel, objections to the admission of testimony, 
legal technicalities and quibbles, badgering cross-examination, and in 
general all the testimony introduced for purposes of mere corrobora¬ 
tion have been disregarded. The object has been to present a faithful 
statement of the scientific phases of the testimony to the exclusion, 
if need be, of the legal aspect of the case. 

Many of the averages contained in the tables of the official record 
appear to be incorrect. It does not appear whether this is due to 

5 




6 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


typographical errors or to mistakes by the original computers. Such 
tables as are reproduced in this digest are copied from the record 
without correction. 

STATEMENTS OF PARTIES TO THE SUIT. 

This is a proceeding in equity instituted by the State of Missouri 
on January 17, 1900, against the State of Illinois and the sanitary 
district of Chicago, praying for an injunction against the defendants 
from draining into Mississippi River the sewage and drainage of said 
sanitary district by way of the Chicago drainage canal and the 
channels of Desplaines and Illinois rivers. 

BILL OF COMPLAINT. 

The bill of complaint alleges in substance as follows: 

That the complainant is a State lying on the west bank of Missis¬ 
sippi River with a frontage thereon of over 400 miles; 

That the States of Illinois and Missouri have concurrent jurisdiction 
over the waters of Mississippi River, each having exclusive territorial 
jurisdiction over that portion adjacent to its shores, the boundary 
having been declared at the middle of the main channel; 

That Illinois River joins the Mississippi at a point above St. Louis; 

That on the banks of the Mississippi below its confluence is a large 
population that uses the water of the Mississippi for domestic, agri¬ 
cultural, and manufacturing purposes; 

That the said water is indispensable to the life, health, and happi¬ 
ness of many thousands of inhabitants in Missouri; 

That the construction of the Chicago drainage canal is such that 
its contents finally empty into Mississippi River about 43 miles above 
the city of St. Louis; 

That such construction w r as done under the sanction and authority 
of the State of Illinois; 

That the channel of said canal is cut through the natural watershed 
dividing the drainage area of Lake Michigan from that of Illinois 
River; 

That the defendants propose to drain through said channel the 
sewage matter from nearly the whole of the city of Chicago and a 
portion of Cook County; 

That for many years the city of Chicago had discharged into Lake 
Michigan large quantities of sewage which has accumulated upon the 
beds of Chicago River and of Lake Michigan; 

That if such plan is carried out it will cause such sewage matter to 
flow into Mississippi River past the homes and waterworks systems 
of the inhabitants of the complainant; 


STATEMENTS OF PARTIES TO THE SUIT. 7 

That the amount of such unclefecated sewage matter would be 
about 1,500 tons daily, and that it will poison the waters of the Mis¬ 
sissippi and render them unfit for domestic use, amounting to a direct 
and continuing nuisance that will endanger the health and lives and 
irreparably injure the business interests of inhabitants of the com¬ 
plainant ; 

That the complainant is without remedy except in a court of 
equity, and 

That it prays for an injunction restraining the defendants from 
doing the acts herein alleged. 

In a supplemental bill of complaint, made subsequent to the open¬ 
ing of the drainage canal, the complainant alleged— 

That the water of the canal had destroyed the value of the water 
of the Mississippi for drinking and domestic purposes, and had 
caused much sickness to persons living along the banks of said river 
in the State of Missouri; 

That, under the law authorizing the construction of the canal, it 
was required that said sewage be diluted with not less than 20,000 
cubic feet of water-per minute for each 1,000 inhabitants of the 
sanitary district, and 

That the defendants had reduced this amount to about 10,000 
cubic feet per 1,000 inhabitants and, acting under the authority of 
the Secretary of War, proposed thereafter to limit the maximum 
dilution to that amount. 

ANSWER OF THE DEFENDANTS. 

The State of Illinois united with the codefendant in general admis¬ 
sions, denials, and allegations, and further contended that the sani¬ 
tary district was not subject to the control of the executive depart¬ 
ment of the State of Illinois, and that all acts of the State and its 
executive department were performed prior to January 17, 1900, the 
date at which the complainant moved for permission to file this bill 
of complaint. 

The sanitary district admitted the character of the complainant, 
its population and location with reference to Mississippi River, and 
the jurisdiction of each party with reference to said stream as alleged 
in the bill of complaint. 

It further admitted that Illinois River empties into the Mississippi 
at a point above the city of St. Louis, and that a large population of 
said plaintiff relies on the waters of Mississippi River for their water 
supply for domestic, agricultural, and manufacturing purposes. 

In reference to the question as to whether or not the said waters 
are indispensable to the life, health, and happiness of the said inhab¬ 
itants, and whether or not said inhabitants are compelled to use such 


8 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


waters for the aforesaid purposes, the defendant neither admitted 
nor denied, blit left the complainant to make proof thereof. 

The defendant admitted the passage of the law creating the sani¬ 
tary district and all the complainant’s allegations with reference to 
the geographic situation of Lake Michigan and of the various rivers 
and the canal forming the drainage system of the defendant. 

The construction of the drainage canal as alleged in the bill of 
complaint was admitted, and the allegation that the sewage of the 
district has been caused to flow through such canal into Desplaines 
River. 

The defendant denied that the sewage of said district flows into 
Chicago River and Lake Michigan, but averred that the greater por¬ 
tion thereof had for many years been discharged into Desplaines and 
Illinois rivers, the same having been pumped from Chicago River 
into the Illinois and Michigan Canal and through this conducted to 
said rivers. 

It was further denied that large quantities of sewage matter-had 
accumulated upon the beds of Chicago River and Lake Michigan, and 
further that the plans adopted would loosen such matter and cause it 
to flow into Desplaines River. 

It was further denied that the waters of the Mississippi will be 
poisoned and polluted by the completion of the plans above noted 
and that the adaptability of said waters for domestic and other uses 
will be destroyed. 

It was further denied that the discharge of sewage through the 
canal will injure the property and business of the cities of the com¬ 
plainant or that it will create a direct and continuing nuisance. 

The defendant averred that the turning into Desplaines River of 
such sewage, together with 300,000 cubic feet per minute of the pure 
water of Lake Michigan, will greatly improve the quality of the water 
of the Mississippi. 

The defendant made numerous allegations concerning the discharge 
by means of pumps of nearly all the sewage of Chicago through the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal, and further alleged that the acts of 
the defendant with reference to the construction of the canal and the 
plans in relation thereto are open and notorious and largely matters 
of record. 

That during the nine years since the institution of the work the 
defendant had expended more than $33,000,000. 

That the complainant had notice of such work, and that said com¬ 
plainant, having delayed this complaint until the completion of said 
work, had been guilty of laches and was therefore estopped to further 
urge this cause. 

It was further averred that the distance by water from Robey 
street, Chicago, to the mouth of Illinois River is 322 miles, and that 


STATEMENTS OF PARTIES TO THE SUIT. 


9 


on the various tributaries that unite to form Illinois River and on the 
main stream there was a population of not less than 1,500,000, exclu- 
sh e of the sanitary district ol Chicago, and that a large number of 
cities drained into the said rivers, and that the sewage of said cities 
had for a great length of time flowed by way of said rivers to Missis¬ 
sippi River. 

I hat Mississippi River and its tributaries form the natural drainage 
system of a vast region of country and that the additional amount of 
sewage discharged through the canal is trifling in amount as com¬ 
pared with the enormous volume received from cities on the Mississippi 
drainage area above St. Louis. 

That by natural laws governing running water in large bodies the 
sewage was deprived of all its deleterious qualities by processes of 
vaporization, attrition, and chemical conversion. 

In answer to the supplemental bill of complaint, the sanitary dis¬ 
trict admitted the opening of the canal, but denied that.the sewage 
had polluted the waters of the Mississippi or that the same had or will 
hereafter cause sickness to persons living upon the banks of said river 
in the State of Missouri. 

It was averred that the defendant would prove, if permitted, that 
the turning into Illinois River of said sewage, together with the pure 
waters of Lake Michigan, does not in any way impair the value of 
the waters of the Mississippi. 

It was further averred that suburban towns and villages having a 
population of 50,000 discharged their sewage into Mississippi River 
opposite said city, which caused a much greater pollution of the 
waters of said river than can possibly be produced by the waters 
coming from Illinois River; that the natural flow of Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers, the latter entering a short distance above the city 
of St. Louis, caused a pressing of the Illinois waters upon the east 
bank of Mississippi River lying along Illinois River and prevented 
them from mixing with the waters flowing along the west bank of 
said stream and into the intake of the waterworks of the city of 
St. Louis. 

WITNESSES AND COUNSEL. 

The principal witnesses called to testify in behalf of the parties to 
this suit were as follows: 

In behalf of the plaintiff: Benezette Williams, Amand Nicholas 
Ravoid, Edward H. Reiser, William C. Teichmann, J. L. Van Ornum, 
George Chandler Whipple, William Thompson Sedgwick, Gardner 
Stewart Williams, George W. Fuller, Allen Hazen, Edward W. Saun¬ 
ders, Washington E. Fischel, Ludwig Bremer, Albert E. Taussig, 
Charles H. Goodman, Herbert E. Smith, John W. Alvord, and 
Ernest E. Lochridge. 


10 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

In behalf of the defendants: John H. Long, F. Robert Zeit, Adolph 
Gehrmann, D. B. Bisbee, Arthur W. Palmer, Thomas J. Burrill, 
Edwin Oakes Jordan, Henry L. Russell, Isham Randolph, Ludwig 
Hektoen, E. G. Hastings, Erastus G. Smith, Jacob A. Harman, 
Robert Spurr Weston, William Pitt Mason, Rudolph Hering, George 
Dock, Lewellys F. Barker, Theobald Smith, Victor C. Vaughan, 
Leonard P. Kinnicutt, William S. Thayer, and John W. Hill. 

The principal counsel participating in the examination were the 
following: 

In behalf of the plaintiff: Edward C. Crow, attorney-general of the 
State of Missouri; Samuel B. Jeffries and William F. Woerner, of 
counsel. 

In behalf of the defendants: H. J. Hamlin, attorney-general of the 
State of Illinois; James Todd, solicitor for the sanitary district of 
Chicago; William M. Springer, John G. Drennan, and W. C. Johns, 
of counsel. 

The examination was conducted before Frank S. Bright, commis¬ 
sioner of the Supreme Court of the United States. 

TYPHOID FEVER IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 

During the course of the testimony there were introduced, through 
various witnesses, the records of deaths from typhoid fever at numer¬ 
ous cities in the Mississippi basin above St. Louis. In order that 
this record may be more comprehensive, the figures have been com¬ 
bined in the following table,, and will be referred to in connection 
with the deductions of certain witnesses for both parties to the suit. 


Table 1. — Deaths from typhoid fever in designated cities in Mississippi basin above St.. 

Louis, Mo., 1893-1902. 



1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

Popula¬ 
tion in 
1900. 

Mississippi basin above 












mouth of Illinois River: 












Minneapolis, Minn. 

134 

107 

88 

60 

148 

86 

71 

79 

121 

66 

202,718 

St. Paul, Miim. 

51 

32 

38 

37 

22 

43 

30 

36 

24 

23 

163.055 

Dubuque, Iowa. 

6 

6 

12 

8 

12 

10 

12 

7 

8 

10 

36,297 

Burlington, Iowa. 

8 

10 

8 

13 

3 

4 

8 

13 

12 

11 

23,201 

Keokuk, Iowa. 

8 

14 

3 

3 

7 

10 

9 

10 

4 

7 

14,041 

Des Moines, Iowa. 

22 

29 

30 

14 

20 

17 

13 

7 

22 

21 

62.139 

Quincy, Ill. 

22 

33 

24 

13 

15 

6 

7 

9 

12 

18 

36,252 

Hannibal, Mo. 

7 

7 

6 

8 

10 

8 

4 

3 

3 

2 

12,780 

Davenport, Iowa. 

5 

6 

4 

3 

5 

2 

12 

14 

11 

11 

35,254 

Rock Island, Ill. 

15 

13 

3 

13 



10 

14 

28 

5 

19 493 

Moline, Ill. 

7 

9 

8 

11 

3 

5 

20 

22 

16 

7 

17’248 

Winona, Minn. 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

5 

5 

1 

4 


Red Wing, Minn. 

5 

2 

2 

3 

0 

4 

0 

3 

2 

3 


Fort Madison, Iowa. 








5 


1 


La Crosse, Wis. 

15 

9 . 

5 

0 

3 

8 

7 

7 

5 

4 


Louisiana, Mo. 








4 

2 

7 


Clinton, Iowa. 

10 

5 

3 

7 

5 

7 

7 

10 

12 1 

5 


Muscatine, Iowa. 

4 

8 

5 

5 

2 

25 

2 

13 

8 

5 



321 

285 

240 

200 

257 

237 

217 

— 

271 

291 

210 

— 





































































TYPHOID FEVER IN MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. H 


Table 1 . —Deaths from typhoid fever in designated cities in Mississippi basin above St. 

Louis, Mo., 1893-1902 —Continued. 



1893. 

1894. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

Popula¬ 
tion in 
1900. 

Missouri River basin: 












Lincoln, Nebr. 

33 

21 

23 

15 

14 

12 

13 

4 

13 

10 

40,169 

Omaha, Nebr. 

22 

40 

29 

18 

22 

32 

26 

24 

23 

20 

102,555 

Council Bluffs, Iowa. 

5 

7 

6 

8 

8 

6 

8 

11 

6 

8 

25,802 

St. Joseph, Mo. 

20 

22 

31 

19 

15 

19 

37 

20 

12 

13 

102,979 

Kansas City, Mo. 

59 

37 

34 

29 

38 

49 

52 

49 

58 

58 

163,752 

St. Charles, Mo. 







22 

5 

6 

14 














139 

127 

123 

89 

97 

118 

158 

113 

118 

123 

.... 

Illinois River basin: 












Chicago, Ill. 

670 

491 

518 

751 

437 

636 

442 

339 

509 

801 

al, 500,000 

Joliet, Ill. 

12 

14 

0 

12 

12 

15 

15 

13 

13 

21 

29,353 

Ottawa, Ill. 

2 

5 

2 

2 

4 

4 

3 

3 

5 

2 

10.588 

Elgin, III. 

5 

3 

5 

14 


4 

5 

15 

15 

8 

22 433 

Aurora, Ill. 

6 

12 

19 

10 

5 

10 

4 

17 

11 

2 

24,147 

Peoria, Ill. 




13 

18 

18 

12 

33 

15 

18 

56 100 

Pekin. Ill. 








2 

1 

2 

8 420 

Decatur, Ill. 

5 

7 

2 

1 

7 

5 

7 

11 

5 

4 

20! 754 

Bloomington, Ill. 

12 

14 

15 

9 

10 

10 

9 

15 

9 

15 

23,286 

Springfield, Ill. 








20 

10 

8 

34,159 

Havana, Ill. 

3 

7 

2 

5 





1 

2 














4.5 

62 

45 

66 

56 

66 

55 

129 

85 

82 

. 

St. Louis, Mo.. 

215 

178 

106 

106 

125 

95 

130 

168 

198 

222 

575,238 


« Tributary to Chicago drainage canal. 


TESTIMONY FOR PEAINTIFF. 

BENEZETTE WILLIAMS. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Benezette Williams, a consulting engineer of Chicago, formerly 
chief engineer of the sanitary district, and for a number of years con¬ 
nected with the sewer department of that city, was called as a witness 
in behalf of the complainant and testified to certain geographic and 
engineering facts concerning the city of Chicago, the sanitary district, 
and the drainage canal. The examination was somewhat digressive 
and the witness was frequently not allowed to finish his testimony 
concerning one point before he was diverted to another; therefore 
the following paragraphs are presented without reference to the order 
in which they were related by the witness: 

The city of Chicago has an area of about 190.6 square miles and 
extends along the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan for about 20 
miles. The eastern boundary is therefore the lake itself, except for 
a distance of 4 J miles where it is coincident with the western boundary 
of Indiana; the southern boundary is a line running at right angles 
from the State boundary; the northern boundary is parallel to and 
24 miles distant from the southern boundary. 0 

Chicago lies very low, the elevation running from lake level to 25 
feet above. During the construction of the city it was necessary to 

a The western boundary is irregular; in general it is at a distance of 8 miles from the eastern 
boundary..—M O. L. 










































































12 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

raise the grades in order to cover the sewers and elevate the city out 
of the mire. A considerable portion of the city has been built out 
into the lake, the mouth of Chicago River, for example, being more 
than one-half mile farther out than formerly. As a whole, the city 
lies too low to afford sufficient gradient for the discharge of the sewers 
by gravity, and therefore trunk sewers have been laid below the lake 
level and pumps have been installed to raise the sewage from them. 

One of the most important, as well as the most troublesome natural 
features about Chicago is Chicago River. The main stream was 
originally not over a mile long from the lake back to the confluence of 
two forks. The northern fork (called North Branch) is the larger of 
the two, rises in Wisconsin, and runs in a southeasterly direction 
across the northern portion of the city. The southern fork (called 
South Branch) divides at a distance of about 5 miles from the lake 
into two forks, which are locally known as West Fork and South Fork. 
South Fork drains a very small territory and originally was merely a 
ditch, dry except during floods. West Fork also drains a small terri¬ 
tory, the area adjoining that of Desplaines River. Formerly, during 
floods, Desplaines River would break over the divide and come down 
West Fork into Lake Michigan, making the fork at such times a com¬ 
parative^ 7 large stream. Throughout the greater length of Chicago 
River and its branches in the city the channel has been dredged and 
docked for commercial purposes, and a considerable depth of water is 
maintained. 

From the time of the initial development of Chicago the river has 
been commonly utilized for the discharge of sewage. With the 
growth of the city the danger occasioned by this practice became 
more and more acute until it was necessary to provide means for 
purifying the stream. The readiest means at hand was the dilution 
of the river water by that from Lake Michigan, and this was accom¬ 
plished for several decades, both by the actual pumping of the lake 
water into the river through conduits and by the pumping of river 
water into the Illinois and Michigan Canal, allowing the lake water to 
take the place of that so discharged. The character of these conduits 
and pumping works is briefly as follows: 

In 1879 a 12-foot conduit was completed, running from the lake 
along Fullerton avenue to North Branch. The pumps there installed 
had a working capacity of 15,000 cubic feet per minute. This 
amount of fresh water from the lake had the effect of flushing the 
impurities gathered in North Branch either into the lake or down 
South Branch, according as the current ran toward one place or the 
other. 

Another conduit was excavated along Lawrence avenue, circular in 
cross section and 16 feet in diameter. The conduit had not been 
completed at the date of the testimony. It was designed to take 


TESTIMONY OF BENEZETTE WILLIAMS. 


13 


away by means ol a system of intercepting sewers the sewage then 
discharged into the lake along the north shore, as well as to supply 
water from the lake to North Branch. 

South Fork of South Branch has its origin about 3 miles south of 
its confluence with South Branch and was at first merely a storm¬ 
water drain. At this time it is dredged for shipping purposes and 
extends to the Chicago stock yards. A conduit has been built into 
what is known as the east arm of South Fork, an arm merely dredged 
out for docks. This conduit, 20 feet in diameter, with a capacity of 
120,000 cubic feet per minute, was constructed to divert the sewage 
entering the lake along the south shore and to supply fresh water to 
flush South Fork. 

The city of Chicago more than thirty years ago established a pump¬ 
ing station at the head of South Branch near Ashland avenue and 
Twenty-sixth street for the purpose of turning the foul water of the 
strain into the Illinois and Michigan Canal, thereby relieving the 
river of much of its impurity. This plan was efficient for a time, but 
with the unexampled growth of the city and the consequent increas¬ 
ing foulness of Chicago River the pumping necessary to the purifica¬ 
tion of the river soon increased beyond the capacity of the plant. 
These pumps were operated by the city until 1900 and had the effect 
of reversing the normal course of the current in South Branch. In 
the year mentioned, however, the works were turned over to the sani¬ 
tary district of Chicago and finally to the commissioners of the Illinois 
and Michigan Canal. At present they are used only for keeping up 
the level of the canal for navigation purposes. The Chicago drainage 
canal was the result of the increased pollution of Chicago River and 
was built to divert all the sewage of the city from the lake into Des- 
plaines River. 

The Chicago drainage canal begins at Robey street, Chicago, about 
one-fourth of a mile north of Thirty-first street, and is parallel with 
the old Illinois and Michigan Canal as far as Lemont—that is, to the 
range line just east of Summit. This stretch of the canal is 41,100 
feet in length. The elevation of the bottom of the channel at Robey 
street is 24.45 feet below Chicago datum, this datum being the lake 
level at low-water mark in 1847. From Robey street to Willow 
Springs, a distance of 13.2 miles, the grade is 1 foot in 40,000, so that 
at Willow Springs the elevation of the canal bottom is — 26.2 feet. The 
section from Robey street to the range line at Summit is dug in glacial 
drift 110 feet wide on the bottom, with slopes of 2 to 1, making the 
width at water line about 200 feet. From the range line at Summit 
to Willow Springs the canal is in glacial drift except for a short dis¬ 
tance, where it strikes some rock. The canal is built in the manner 
above described throughout this second stretch. From Willow 
Springs to a point within about 4,000 feet of the controlling works at 


14 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Lockport the channel is 160 feet wide on the bottom, with vertical 
sides formed by excavating the rock which extended most of the dis¬ 
tance between the two points. Along this stretch there is a fall of 1 
foot in 20,000. At a point within 4,000 feet of the controlling works 
the canal widens out in fan shape, and just above the works the width 
becomes considerable. The grade is maintained the same, the eleva¬ 
tion of the bottom at the works being —30.1 feet, which gives a total 
fall of the canal between Robey street and the controlling works of 
5.55 feet. The distance between the two points is 28.01 miles. 

As originally designed, according to the prescription of law, the 
canal is intended to carry 600,000 cubic feet per minute, with the water 
in the lake as datum. This capacity was provided for in all rock 
excavations, but in the first section, between Robey street and Sum¬ 
mit, the canal was made smaller, with a view to widening in the future 
as the demand should arise. The canal was commenced in the fall 
of 1892, and it was accepted by the governor of Illinois January*17 
1900. 

The flow from the canal to Desplaines River during the early periods 
is as follows: 


Flow from Chicago drainage canal to Desplaines River, January 20, 1900, to March 31 

1901. 


Cubic feet per minute. 


January 20 to March 31, 1900. 179, 741 

March 31 to June 30, 1900. 211, 577 

June 30 to September 29, 1900. 210, 317 

September 29 to December 29, 1900... 250, 635 

December 29, 1900, to March 31, 1901. 303, 736 

Maximum flow, March 16, 1901. 356, 723 


The rate of flow in the canal, as reported June 20, 1900, by Major 
Willard, United States Engineer Corps, was as follows: Whenever 
there was a discharge of 150,000 to 210,000 cubic feet per minute the 
average velocity was 1.79 feet per second, or 1.22 miles per hour; 
when the discharge was from 270,000 to 310,000 cubic feet per minute 
the average velocity was 2.72 feet per second, or 1.85 miles per hour. 

For the purpose of showing the population tributary to Chicago 
River in the city, and thereby indicating the great amount of polluted 
matter discharged into it, the witness stated that he had made for the 
whole city a distribution of the population according to the points of 
watercourse to which it is tributary and had represented that distri¬ 
bution of the city into districts by a map, which he introduced in 
evidence. These districts are numbered from 1 to 12, inclusive, and 
were fixed according to the sewer map of Chicago, showing the main 
sewers, each district being tributary to one of them. Based on these 
districts, the total population of the sanitary district—that is, north 
of Eighty-seventh street—was, in 1900,1,639,546. Consolidating cer- 








TESTIMONY OF BENEZETTE WILLIAMS. 


15 


tain districts in accordance with the drainage system, the witness 
found that the population tributary to the main portion of Chicago 
River and to South Branch was 791,677; that tributary to the lake 
on the south shore, which the witness explained will ultimately be 
discharged into South Branch, was 175,182; tributary to South Fork 
of South Branch, 282,655; tributary to West Fork within the city 
limits, 74,899; tributary to North Branch, 555,789; tributary to the 
lake on the north shore, 28,878. Aside from the districts here enu¬ 
merated there was in the southern part of the sanitary district a popu¬ 
lation of 18,827 that had not up to that time been provided with a 
sewerage system; and in what is known as the Calumet district, lying 
south of Eighty-seventh street and discharging into Calumet River, 
there was a population of 70,636. 

Summarizing these, the witness stated that there drained into the 
main river, South Branch, and various tributaries a total population 
of 1,705,020. To this there would ultimately be added, through the 
Lawrence avenue and Thirty-ninth street conduits, under construc¬ 
tion, the drainage from a population of 204,060. After these conduits 
are put into operation, the sewage intercepted and turned into the 
river, there will be distributed directly into the main river, South 
Branch, and the drainage canal the sewage from a population of 
800,829; into South Fork that from 476,664; into West Fork that 
from 74,899; and into North Branch that from 584,664. The fore¬ 
going figures are based on the school census, which was in excess of 
the Federal census by about 16 per cent. Witness stated that the 
sewage from about 200,000 people was discharged directly into Lake 
Michigan. 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

On cross-examination the witness stated that the pumps which were 
used in South Branch of Chicago River to deliver polluted water to 
the Illinois and Michigan Canal had operated most of the time since 
their installation up to 1900, or for a period of about thirty years, 
usually at their full capacity, not far from 45,000 cubic feet per minute, 
and that this water eventually reached Illinois River through the foot 
of the canal at La Salle and from various waste weirs between the two 
points. 

REDIRECT EXAMINATION. 

The testimony of the witness was closed with a description of the 
controlling works of the Chicago drainage canal at Lockport. He 
stated that at these works there were seven sluice gates operated by 
mechanical appliances, each gate having an opening 30 feet wide. 
They are held as a reserve until the time comes when they will be 
needed. The main appliance relied on at present for controlling the 


16 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


flow from the canal is known as the Bear Trap dam; -it is 160 feet long 
and has a vertical oscillation of 17 feet. This dam is a steel caisson, 
the upper edge of which points upstream and can be lowered or 
raised by water power. When the dam was completely lowered, 
there would pass over it an amount of water which the witness esti¬ 
mated as from 800,000 to 1,000,000 cubic feet per minute, or more 
than equal to the capacity of the intake of the canal at Chicago River; 
while when the dam is raised to its maximum height, the flow of water 
from the canal can be shut off completely. 

The testimony of this witness occupies pages 480 to 543 of the 
record. 

J. L. VAN ORNUM. 

J. L. Van Ornum, called as a witness in behalf of the complainant, 
qualified by making the following statements: He is a civil engineer 
by profession, having graduated from the University of Wisconsin in 
1888; for about ten years thereafter was engaged in the general prac¬ 
tice of the profession of civil engineering in different parts of the coun¬ 
try, the work including municipal, railway, and river and harbor 
investigations, together with that on the Mexican boundary survey; 
at the time of testimony and during four years previous thereto had 
been professor of civil engineering at Washington University, St. 
Louis, Mo. (1733-1734)°. 

The witness stated that in March, 1903, he was engaged by the city 
of St. Louis to determine the time required for water to flow from 
Chicago, through the drainage canal and Desplaines, Illinois, and Mis¬ 
sissippi rivers, down to the water intake at Chain of Rocks. The 
investigation was divided into three sections; one covered the dis¬ 
tance from Chicago to Peoria, the second from Peoria to Grafton, and 
the third from Grafton to Chain of Rocks. It had been the intention 
to carry on the work in all these sections simultaneously and con¬ 
tinue the observations day and night, but this was found impracticable 
by reason of adverse conditions which made it impossible to follow 
the floats at night. Therefore they were taken out of the water at 
night and replaced in the same positions on the following morning. 
(1734.) 

The floats were of the submerged type, the lower portion consisting 
of metal-plate vanes set into each other in such a way that in what¬ 
ever direction the current shoidd turn there would be a considerable 
area exposed. Each plate was 12 by 12 inches in area. It was con¬ 
nected to the buoyant part of a float by a chain, the length of which 
varied in different floats according to the depth of the water in which 
it was used. The part of the float which gave buoyancy consisted of 

° Figures in parentheses throughout this paper refer to pages of the official record of testimony. 








TESTIMONY OF J. L. VAN ORNUM. 


17 


two cones with bases superimposed at the periphery. The cones had 
a diameter at the base of 12 inches, while the axis of the double cone 
was about 8 inches in length, the idea being to so regulate this size that 
the buoyant part of the submerged float would be made to sink to 
about half its height by the weight which it was supporting. Extend¬ 
ing down through the center of this cone was a cylindrical tube into 
which was set a stiff wire which supported a metal flag 4 by 4 inches. 
This flag was numbered and painted a certain color in order that the 
observers might readily distinguish the various floats. The whole idea 
of float construction was to get as closely as practicable the velocity of 
water on and below the surface, rather than merely that at the surface, 
so that there might be derived from the observations a more accurate 
idea of the velocities of the stream. The length of the chains support¬ 
ing the vanes was set at 1, 2, and 3 feet for those used on Illinois River, 
while those on Mississippi River were regulated to 2, 4, and 6 feet. 
(1735-1736.) 

The testimony of the witness with reference to the intervals noted 
during the investiagtion is collected in Table 2. (1737-1742.) 


Table 2. — Rate of flow of Chicago drainage canal and Desplaines, Illinois, and Mis¬ 
sissippi rivers from Chicago to St. Louis, March, 1903. 

FIRST SECTION—CHICAGO TO PEORIA. 


Day. 

Measuring points. 

Interval. 

Remarks. 


Head of canal . 

Hr. min. 



Western Avenue Rridge, Chicago. 


40 

Estimated. 

15 
16-17 

16 
16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
20 
21 
21 
22 
22 
22 
22 
23 
23 

a 24 
25 

25 

26 
25 

25 

26 

C and C. T. Ry. bridge . 

7 

59 

Cook County line. . 

19 

4 


Desplaines River at Rear Trap dam. 

6 

43 

34 hours 26 minutes in canal. 

Joliet, Ill . 

2 

15 

River at flood stage. 

Designated flee station . 

3 

36 

1 mile above Diinaee River. 

3 

6 


Morris . 

7 

54 


Seneca . 

5 

2 

. 

Marseilles . 

2 

15 


Ottawa . 

2 

7 


Utica . 

3 

36 


T,n 8bo.Ho, . 

2 

28 


Peru . 


58 


Marnnet.te. . 

5 

6 


Denue . 

1 

1 


Uennenin . 

4 

15 


Twin Island . 

7 

5 


Henry . 

8 

36 


171 o or qIq ti nn fit. srrm.l! i sin nd.;. 

1 

49 


Phillipnt.hp. . 

11 

18 


Rr»mp __ . 

2 

26 

Observations by special 

Placed tree on bank . 

9 

48 

party sent ahead. 

Ponria main hifdlwa.V. 

17 

45 

Lockport to Peoria, 102 




hours 26 minutes. 


a No observation by reason of storm. 


IKK 194—07 


2 












































18 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Table 2. —Rate of flow of Chicago drainage canal and Desplaines, Illinois, and Mis- 
sisippi rivers from Chicago to St. Louis , March 1903 —Continued. 


SECOND SECTION—PEORIA TO GRAFTON. 


Day. 

Measuring point. 

Interval. 

Remarks. 


Peoria, . 

Hr. min. 


14 

Pekin . 

4 30 

River at ilood stage. 

15 

Kingston . 

3 17 

15 

Banner . 

7 43 


16 

Liverpool . . 

8 58 


17 

Havana . 

10 40 


18 

Sheldons Grove. 

10 37 


19 

Beardstown. 

10 51 


20 

Lagrange . 

6 22 


20 

Flag station on tree . 

3 33 


21 

Naples . 

5 19 


18 

Florence . 

4 15 

Observations by special 
party sent ahead. 

18 

Bedford. 

3 35 

19 

Pearl. 

2 45 


19 

Kampsville . 

5 15 


19 

Designated beacon. 

1 40 


20 

Hardin. 

3 50 


20 

Government light. 

5 15 


21 

Grafton. 

4 2 

Peoria to Grafton, 102 hours 



27 minutes. 


THIRD SECTION—GRAFTON TO CHAIN OF ROCKS. 



Grafton. 



18 

Alton. 

6 36 

River at half stage. 

Grafton to Chain of Rocks, 
11 hours 10 minutes. 

18 

Intake tower, Chain of Rocks. 

4 34 



Total time, Chicago to St. Louis, 10 days, 10 hours, 29 minutes. 


The witness stated that although the work was all done under his 
supervision, none of it was conducted personally except that between 
Grafton and Chain of Rocks. The assistant engineers employed to 
make the observations between Chicago and Grafton submitted field 
notes properly certified. These notes included records of velocity 
and direction of wind, velocity of floats, condition of the weather and 
stream, the general course taken by the floats, and every incident or 
fact having any bearing on the work. The instructions given to 
assistant engineers making the observations were that the floats 
should be placed in the stream along the cross section and allowed to 
take their own course. Whenever one of the floats would go ashore 
or become entangled in a snag, it would be removed and carried for¬ 
ward to the position of the most advanced float. (1743-1744.) 

In reply to a question concerning the side of the river taken by the 
floats during the observations made from Grafton to Chain of Rocks, 
the witness stated that the floats were placed in the lower end of Illi¬ 
nois River in such a way that they went across the river, one in the 
center, one about half way from the center to the right bank, and the 
third half way from the center to the left bank. As they floated into 
Mississippi River they moved closer to the Illinois shore, and from 
Illinois River to a point below the mouth of the Missouri they were 
moie oi less close to the Illinois shore. At a point about 2 miles above 

















































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


19 


the waterworks intake, the floats were fairly close to the Illinois shore, 
perhaps about 50 feet from it, but from this point down to the intake 
the floats rapidly left the Illinois shore, reaching the middle of Mis¬ 
sissippi River, and finally passing the intake between it and the Mis¬ 
souri shore. (1745-1746.) 

On being recalled to the witness stand, Professor Van Ornum testi¬ 
fied that he had taken samples from Mississippi and Missouri rivers 
and sent the same to George C. Whipple at Brooklyn for examination. 
The samples were taken along the sections across the rivers as follows: 
Section B in Missouri River above its confluence with the Mississippi; 
section M in Mississippi River above the mouth of the Missouri; sec¬ 
tion C in Mississippi River below the mouth of the Missouri; and sec¬ 
tion I in Mississippi River close to the intake at Chain of Rocks. A 
chart showing these locations was presented and discussed. The 
samples taken were numbered from 1 to the highest number, No. 1 
always being toward the right bank of the river. Eight points were 
located along each of sections M and C, twelve along section I, and 
three along section B. At each sampling point on section B one 
sample was taken at a depth of 10 feet; at each point on sections C 
and I three samples were taken at depths of 6 inches, 10 feet, and 30 
feet or at the bottom, being designated, according to the depth of the 
water, a, b, and c, respectively. (1882-1884.) 

AMAND NICHOLAS RAVOLD. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Dr. Amand Nicholas Ravold was called as a witness on behalf of 
the complainant and qualified as an expert by stating that he had been 
a practicing physician since 1881 and a professional bacteriologist 
since 1885. From 1887 he had been connected with the medical 
department of Washington University, during most of which period he 
had held the professorship of bacteriology. In 1894 he entered the 
employ of the health department of the city of St. Louis, as consult¬ 
ing bacteriologist. The testimony occupies pages 2-480, volume 1 of 
the record. 

After relating at some length the history of bacteriology and its 
development and discussing briefly various epidemic diseases and 
methods of sewage disposal, the witness was directed to the subject 
in hand. (7 et seq.) 

The bacteriological investigation carried on by the city of St. Louis 
to determine the effect of the water from the Chicago drainage canal 
was divided into three periods, the first extending from August to 
December, 1899; the second from January to December, 1900, and the 
third from September to November, 1901, each inclusive. Besides 
this, from January to April, 1902, the witness engaged in special inves¬ 
tigations, and from June to September of the same year carried on 


20 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


experiments to determine the longevity of Bacillus typhosus in water 
under various conditions. The witness further stated that all meth¬ 
ods used in these investigations conformed with the recommendations 
of the committee on standard methods in water analyses appointed 
by the American Public Health Association, except such special pro¬ 
cedure as he had devised during the investigations for original work. 
(57-76.) 

Previous to the beginning of this investigation a temporary bacte¬ 
riological laboratory was established at Chain of Rocks, and August 
10, 1899, numerous samples of the water were taken from the river in 
the intake and in the uptake, which is at the end of the 1,500 feet of 
channel running from the intake tower to the Missouri shore. As the 
results are simply preliminary in character and not especially signifi¬ 
cant, the tables will not be given in this review. It is sufficient to 
state that from August 10 to September 25, 1899, the number of bac¬ 
teria in Mississippi River above the intake varied from 275 to 3,600 
per cubic centimeter; the four water samples taken at the intake from 
August 10 to 23 showed a content of 375 to 950 bacteria per cubic cen¬ 
timeter, and in the samples taken at the uptake from August 10 to Sep¬ 
tember 11 the number of bacteria varied from 150 to 1,500. The 
results, as a whole, show an unmistakable decrease in the number of 
bacteria between the river above the intake and the end of the tunnel 
at the shore. (76-81.) 

Following this five series of samples were taken from a boat along 
Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers at various points, the results 
of which are not here recorded. (81-85.) 

Commencing January 23, 1900, six days after the opening of the 
Chicago drainage canal, a systematic bacteriological survey was 
started, daily samples being taken from the following points: 

Lake Michigan. 

Chicago drainage canal. 

Desplaines River at Joliet and Lockport. 

Illinois River at Peoria, Beardstown, and Grafton. 

Mississippi River at Grafton, Alton, and Hartford. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

Mississippi River opposite St. Louis water-supply intake at three points on cross 
section, Missouri shore, midriver, and Illinois shore. 

These samples were transported to St. Louis, and throughout the 
remainder of the year the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter and 
the presence or absence of Bacillus coli communis were determined. 

I he results of the determinations on Lake Michigan samples are given 
in Table 3. (93-96.) 


TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


21 


Table 3. —Bacteriological examination of seventeen samples of water from Lake Michigan 

in 1900. 


Date. 

Place. 

Bacteria 
per cubic 
centimeter. 

July 23, 11.45 a. m. 

4-mile crib. 

1,600 

12.300 

16.300 
21,400 

5,200 
909,700 
111,.500 
61,000 
44,000 
1,100 
1,000 
4,400 
1,100 
90,000 
157.500 
3,300 
2,900 

July 30, 11.30 a. m. 

Carter Harrison crib.. 

Aug. 9, 4.00 p. m. 

10 miles out from Chicago.. 
Carter Harrison crib.. .. 

Aug. 31, 10.30 a. m. 

Sept. 7, 11.30 a. m. 

Lake View crib... . 

Sept. 15, 10.30 a. m. 

2-mile crib. 

Sept. 15, 11.45 a. m. 

3-mile crib. 

Sept. 22, 2.00 p. m. 

2-mile crib. 

Sept. 22, 11.15 a. m. 

68th street crib. 

Oct. 11, 12.15 p. m. 

2-mile crib. 

Oct. 11, 11.30 a. m. 

3-mile crib. 

Oct. 19, 11.00 a. m. 

2-mile crib. 

Oct. 19, 10.30 a. m. 

3-mile crib. 

Oct. 26, 11.45 a. m. 

4-mile crib. 

Oct. 26, 12.30 a. m. 

68th street crib. 

Nov. 9, 11.30 a. m. 

.do. 

Nov. 9, 11.00 a. m. 

4-mile crib. 




B.colicom- 

munis.o 


+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 

+ 


+ 

+ 


a4- indicates presence of B. coli communis: — indicates absence of B. coli communis. 


The witness then read into the record the results of the daily ex¬ 
aminations made at the various other points above mentioned. The 
complete statement occupies pages 100-211, inclusive, of the official 
record of testimony. The results, condensed into weekly averages 
with the per cent of samples containing B. coli communis , are included 
in Table 4. 

In connection with report of these investigations the witness dis¬ 
cussed the work of identification of bacterial flora in samples taken 
from seven points. The results are combined in Table 5. 
















































Table 4. —Weekly averages of results of bacteriological examinations January 23 to October 0, 1900, on. samples talcen from designated points. 

[Numbers of bacteria expressed in thousands per cubic centimeter; of B. coli communis in per cent.] 


22 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

i 


Tap in 
laboratory, 
St. Louis. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 


Bac¬ 

teria. 


Outlet of 
reservoir, 
St. Louis 
water¬ 
works. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

NOiOOMOOWHaNOHMiCWWOOCHNMOtBHOOOOOOOOOOg 
©CM «ONCCNM'5’'ft''»NT! l nOOON(D^OOOSOOOOOCOOOOO 

y—i r-4 r —1 r—1 rH rH t— 1 rH rH rH rH rH r—1 rH iH 

Bac¬ 
teria. I 

* 

00 MNMrHX © X *0 t- X i— lX*OCM©t^XCMt^X"'f©t^©’—l X i—i © ® i—I t—1(^*0 

oioocjiM'tdcocicoo5cdr-iiO'J : ojt^co'7 : '^t'--roic>G'5’iocooifO(N'fovieoc'i' : t , ' <: 5’Oco 
■'J'i-lCM©©*0©*0--TU-TrxX C-l i-H i—i 1-1 

rH rH O'! CO 

Mississippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, Illi¬ 
nois shore. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

©*0©*0©0©©X®''f© —lOONWNOOO-I00l-1-It--00C>®000000 
*C I- CM C O O X -t* X ■— t- ■ c »o © x © x i-- © © >o *o © o © © © © o © © o 

rH rH i—1 rH rH i-H t-H rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

iO to to to lO to to to to to lO to to to to 

»ocoo^MN'i"i , i < ONN’i ; a:ci^^ooo^d6dxi- , tto > i 5 tcoo6iNHOocco 
‘O o C] 05 N N o N ^ CC <M Cd 01 (MIMIMhh rH 

rH rH 0-1 rH rH CO O'! 

Mississippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, in¬ 
take tower. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

OOOOOQCOOI-OCOI^NI'OOI'OOwi^OI^OHCOMOOOOOOOOOO 

to o®*ox*o*ocM-r®*o*ox©i-<oxt-*o*o*oxi^xx©©©©©©©©©© 

t-H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

10*0 *0 *C *0 *C *0 to © 

I’lOiOMC'lMNiONXXCl'iNNNCO'fNCOe’NM^'O'.Mt-'J'Xtd'^tO'TduiidN 
i © X 1^ X © (- X — 1 i—1 © X i—I (Ml—1 r-IC4NHHrtrtTH i—1 XMINH 

rH rH rH rH rH *0 rH rH 

Mississippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, Mis¬ 
souri shore. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

'QOoaooioi'NONONXoxi'XONNffli'OOXi-iOOOooococo 

CM CM © © t - *C © CM © ® >C -J> © -r © X X © © CM © X ® X t- o o ® ® ® ® ® o ® ® 

rH > rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

© © © © © 10*0 10 *o*o *o © © © © 

© i - x x r- © t - © © © © cm' © © x © © cm ao x *-h © r- © ©' © © © cm © © © x 

*I , 'f*liaN*flNCC'^M'!DNHH'T , *t'C'ININMXH CM < hhhh NXXN 

CM —i i-< X 

Missouri 
River at 
Fort Belle- 
fontaine. 

B. I 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

OOOOOOCOrHCOOOOt^OOCOCOOOCOI^r-t^OOCOt-OOOOOOOOOO 

to CC^h^» 0 :)iO‘ 0'0 00 ’TW*OO^' 0 ^»C 00 OQ 0 ‘ 0 COOOOOOOOO 

rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

*0 *0*0 *0*0 *0*0 *0*0 *0 *0*0*0 

XrtXC'10XC*0-HOOO®®tClN*od(Ni9MMiOO)I'^cdN‘0'^(N®'d®ffl'fl' 
rt'fO*ON®I'XI>X'I l O'f'*fHO|1 , 'tP‘OlflcO-'ONNNiHH r-l I *fXXN 

CM irH i—1 -t* CM i—1 i—1 * »-* 

Mississippi 
River at 
Hartford. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

'OWO'OWO^OH’HWcOHaQ^OOHWCCWLOOOOOOOOOOOOO 

Cl CO (M X^HCChHTfcOhC'iOCC‘OOt'^XL':oO‘OCH»OCOOOOOCOOO 

rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

iO iO to to to to to to to »o to to »o 

OQl-^COt^COCiOQOOOQ ,r T'Ot-rHiOOO^OO^OtOiO'^rCOr^^COrHrH(MCOCOCirHC s <i ,,; f(C5 

00 ^ O CO O O O Cl Cl ‘O CO H rH rH rH 

h h ci Cl H /N CO Cl 

Mississippi 
River above 
Alton. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

OOOCOCiOCOhNCOCiOWOlOHCOtOacONCONCOClNCOOOOOOOCOOO 

CO Cl n ^ 'O 'O ^ Cl w't' Cl Cl t'* ’’T Cl x *o X to X Cl *o 'T c o c o o o o o o o 

r H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

iO to tO to iO to to to to to 

OtOOCOf^tOdcOOOjcOciONWcOXNcioiOOCCCCXiOciHClCOl^HHCl^Cl 

04 rH O *0 to rH rH iO Qi *0 Cl rH rH rH rH rH 

rH rH rH 0-1 Cl rH Cl CO rH 

Mississippi 
River 3 
miles above 
Grafton. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

NOONMWHOTOOLNHhHNOONCONOWWhCOOOOOOOOQO 
tO Cl CO rH CO 00 t— GO O T ‘OiONCNtOOXiOXtOXXl’toxOCCCCOCCCO 

rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

to to to to to to to to to to to to to 

rHcocorHiotoioo^c^t^csod^HOit^ootot^ooi^to^OiOiOfoiooooir^oood^o 

^ V T o l O Cl O d ’’t CO C H rH ci H H H d rH Cl rH rH CO CO rH rH Cl 

rH rH rH Tf ,-H 

Illinois 
River 3 
miles above 
Grafton. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

OOCOMHXfOCNhHQHO‘0‘OCOOOOCHMOHNOOO^OOOOOOO 

Tf CO CO 00 N 00 x »o ‘O ‘C 01 o ^ ae o ao o t- ’’r ao »o o o o ac o o o o o o o 

rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

IO to to to to to -to to to to to to 

C005Q0M<NC0XN^C5C0Tt<aiCicicioOcicCHOSt0rHXC5' , tCl‘0CDONC0C0cd 

rH 00 l O C^l Cl Ol O f'- O' tO Cl rH CO rH rH rH r-i rH rH rH Cl Ol rH 

HHC1C1C1C1C1C1C1HH 

Illinois 
River 3 
miles above 
Peoria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

OrHr^O'>POCO'OCOOCOOCOOOOOCOOrHr^Or^^OrHOOOOOOOOOOO 
OG'OCOO^XX'O^r^TT X O0c000rnr^i00»0^0 1^0000000 0'00 0 

rH r-| rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

©©-lCMX''l'©®©©©©©©©XC-IXCMXX''3 < (p'' } '-^©*(?®*OXX©X©XX© 

I'- © © C-1 1- 1- -H t- X t- i-H © © CM i- © cm © © x -ti © o © -i-i x x cm t- x © —i i-i x © 

1—1 X ©XXCM©©CMX •'T'CO CM’-iXt-Xt^©X- , 3 , '*r©XX®CMXCMX 

rH rH rH rH 

Desplaines 
River at 
Joliet. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

• ) • « t • 

• • • • • • rH o o rH o rH co co o o o o o rH o rH co o o o o o o o o o o 

• • • • • •t^-cooot'-ootor^iooOQOcooooooOrHi^ot^tOTroooooooooo 

• * * * * * rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 

• ••••• 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

• ••••• 

. CMXX©CM©-Ti©i— ii— in}<XX©-HXt^i—iOT'X©©©X' ! l , i—i X X © © 

.©©0®Q©XX-hX©Xi— i©©©CMCM©®®©-H~ot-©©©®CM 

■ • • • 1 'SflXWilNOfldiCXNNHrpHHH i— i ■*T I i— i C-l © © © © =1 

• till |L 

i . • • . -d a.co^ to o t-h 

•!(••• rH 

• ••••• 

Drainage 
canal at 
Lockport. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

• • • • • •©Xt^.-iOXi-iQOO-HCX©'— 1»—!©©!— i©X©©0©00©©©© 

. XX*Ot'-©Xt^®©Xt^©X©t-t^©©t^OX©©©©©©0®©© 

. 1-H *—< 1—1 i—l HH 1—1 1—1i—li—1i—1i—li—li—1i—1i—li—1 

• ••III 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

• ••III 

. ooxHpHrtHHMoci'i | S)-iHe*flHHOiaffiNHinH8«*i | w 

, . . . . .,-ixXC-l©©CM©CMCM'TXXX©©©CMX-Hr^-'r©—it^uii©©-H©00 

. . . • . .OXN8f XCHOOMHMSaroN'I'flHNVMPlWCNINtlHHH 

.i-T © o' c-fc-T i-T i-T cL —T i-T th" i-i" 

• •«*•• 1—11-1 

( 1 1 1 • • 

Week 

begin¬ 

ning— 

MOfflnCNa«ONMON^HMiONpiO(MC!CMONT|i_i r- Tf< —< X •'f 1 i-h X © CM 
(NX rtNCI 1-1 CM C-l i—i — — CM — i CM 5l i-H 1—i CM i—i i—l CM X i—i CM CM i—l i—i CM 

rt rj ,d .o’ ,d .d *3 *- ^ <- *- ^ >> i>> ;>> >> >* 2 2 2 2 >->>->fc>->>->tijbbti> 

3 § « « « 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 = = == = = = « & c & « 


























































































































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


23 


Table 5. Bacterial -flora in Desplaines, Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers at 

designated points. 


Species. 

Desplaines River at 

Joliet. 

Illinois River at 
Grafton. 

Mississippi River at 
Grafton. 

Mississippi River at 
Hartford. 

Mississippi River at 
Chain of Rocks. 

Missouri River at 

Fort Beliefontaine. 

Laboratory tap, St. 

Louis. 

Bacillus albus. 

+ 



4- 


4- 

4- 


B. antennifonnis. 



4- 


B. aquatilis sulcatus I. 

+ 


4- 

4- 

4- 

+ 

4- 

+ 



B. aquatilis sulcatus III. 


4- 


4- 


B. aquatilis sulcatus V. 

4- 

+ 

4- 


B. arborescens. 

4- 

4- 

4- 

+ 

+ 

+ 

4- 

B. aurescens. 


+ 

4- 

4- 

B. aureus. 


B. brunneus. 





B. candicans. 






4- 

4- 

4- 

+ 

+ 

4- 

B. cereus. 


+ 

4- 

+ 

+ 

+ 

4- 

+ 

+ 

4- 

4- 

+ 

4- 

4- 

4- 

B. cloacae. 

4- 

4- 

+ 

B. coli communis. 

B. delicatulus. 

4- 

+ 


B. desidiosus. 



B. fluorescens incognitus. 



4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 


4- 

+ 

B. fluorescens liquefaciens. 



+ 

4- 


B. fluorescens tenuis. 

+ 

4- 

4- 

B. fluorescens termo. 

4- 



B. fulvus. 




4- 

+ 

4- 

B. helvolus. 

4- 

+ 

+ 


4- 

4- 

+ 

4- 

+ 

+ 

B. iridescens. 



B. lactiviscosus.;. 

+ 

+ 


4- 

B. lactis erythrogenes. 

4- 


B. liquefaciens. 

4- 

4- 

4- 


+ 1 4- 

B. liquidus. 


4- 

+ 

B. megaterium. 


+ 

+ 


4- 

4- 

4- + 

B. mesentericus vulgatus. 



B. nubulis. 




4- 


B. ocraceus. 

+ 

+ 

4- 

+ 

4- 




B. plicatus... 



I • 

B. proteus mirabills. 

4- 

4- 


4- 

4- 



4- 

4- 

B. proteus zenkeri. 

4- 


4- 

B. proteus zacarei. 

4- 


B. rubefaciens . 






+ 

4- 

B. stellatus. 

4- 

4- 

+ 


4- 

4- 

4- 

B. subflavus . 


B. subtilis . 




4- 



B. snpp.rfieialis . 

4- 



+ 



B. ubiquitus . 

+ 

4- 

+ 


4- 



B. urea? . 






B. viridis . 


4- 


4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 

4- 

Micrococcus cremoides. 



M. flflvns liqiipfiioiens . 







S&ro.inn. 1 11 t,p,n 

4- 



' 


4- 







A third series of examinations extended throughout the period from 
August 26 to December 1, 1901. The plan of procedure involved the 
establishment of temporary laboratories equipped with the necessary 
apparatus at the following points: Joliet, Ill., in charge of Dr. W. C. G. 
Kirchner; Peoria, Ill., in charge of Dr. William H. Rush; Grafton, Ill., 
in charge of Leon G. Tedesche; 1141 Market street, St. Louis, with five 
assistant bacteriologists under the charge of Dr. Ravold. 



































































































































24 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Samples were collected from the following points: 


Sampling points, August 26 to December 1, 1901. 


Desplaines River at Lockport, above junction with drainage canal 

Bear Trap dam, drainage canal. 

Illinois and Michigan canal, at Ninth Street Bridge, Lockport.. 

Desplaines River at Ninth Street Bridge. 

Desplaines River at Ruby street, Joliet. 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s bridge, Joliet. 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

Illinois River at railroad bridge, Pekin. 

Illinois River at Kingston, 3 miles below Pekin. 

Illinois River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River 1 mile above Alton. 

Mississippi River at Hartford.. 

Missouri River at Bellefontaine. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near Illinois shore. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near Missouri shore. 

Mississippi River at intake tower. 

Reservoir at Chain of Rocks. 

Reservoir at Bissells Point... 

Laboratory tap, 1141 Market street, St. Louis. 

Tap at residence 5946 Garfield avenue. St. Louis. 


Number of 
samples. 

40 
52 
34 

41 
51 
49 
54 


55 

56 
56 
52 
51 
55 

74 
72 
70 

75 
72 
69 
49 


Besides the above, seven samples were collected from Illinois River 
at Lasalle, and twenty-four at Beardstown. These samples were sent 
to Peoria. 

The witness explained that the purpose of taking the series of sam¬ 
ples from a tap on Garfield avenue, St. Louis, was to show the differ¬ 
ence in the condition of the water in the high service from that in the 
low. In addition to the seventy-hours sedimentation period afforded 
by the reservoirs at Chain of Rocks, the water diverted to the low 
service had the benefit of further storage in the reservoirs at Bissells 
Point. No further sedimentation period is afforded to the high 
service after leaving Chain of Rocks, but the effect of the longdistance 
traveled by the water in the mains must be taken into account. 
Between the Chain of Rocks reservoirs and the Garfield avenue tap, 
10 miles of pipe intervene, 6 miles of this lying between the reservoirs 
and the Compton Hill standpipe, and 4 miles between the standpipe 
and the Garfield avenue house. 

The results of the third series of examinations were then read into 
the record by Dr. Ravold, and are reported on pages 222-275, inclu¬ 
sive. Table 6 contains the weekly averages of these determinations, 
together with the proportion of samples in each week containing Bacil¬ 
lus coli communis. These results are fairly representative of the 
daily figures and may be accepted in connection with all interpreta¬ 
tions necessary to this testimony without important error. 























TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. EAVOLD 


25 


Table 6. Weekly averages of results of bacteriological examinations, September Ilf. to 
November 30, 1901, on samples from designated points. 


Numbers of bacteria expressed in thousands per cubic centimeter; of J9. coli communis in per cent.] 


Week 

begin¬ 

ning— 

i 

Desplaines 
River above 
junction 
with Chi¬ 
cago drain¬ 
age canal. 

Bear Trap 
darn, Chi¬ 
cago drain¬ 
age canal, 
Lockport. 

Illinois and 
Michigan 
Canal at 
Ninth Street 
Bridge, 
Lockport 

Desplaines 
River at 
Ninth Street 
Bridge, 
Lockport. 

Desplaines 
River at 
Ruby 
street, 
Joliet. 

Desplaines 
River at 
Brandon’s 
bridge, 
Joliet. 

Illinois 
River, 3 
miles 
above 
Peoria 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Sept. 21.. 



950 

824 

487 

764 

348 

371 

533 

495 

3,429 

5,000 

50 

60 

75 

60 

100 

496 

282 

665 

1,077 

532 

1,080 

50 

60 

50 

33 

33 



471 
317 
224 
581 
453 
438 
249 
274 
2,153 
2,990 

100 

67 

100 

83 

100 

344 

221 

442 

69 

343 

346 

200 

299 

210 

3,045 




Sept. 28.. 
Oct. 5.... 
Oct. 12... 
Oct. 19... 
Oct. 26... 
Nov. 2... 
Nov. 9... 
Nov. 16.. 
Nov. 23.. 

42.3 
4.2 

25.3 
1.7 
4.2 
2.0 
4.0 
4.2 

20 

40 

60 

0 

84 
317 
366 
193 
284 
621 
441 
3,572 
6,000 

50 

25 

25 

100 

25 

100 

100 

67 

75 

1.74 

.34 

1.16 

.27 

.66 

.30 

1.6 

3.2 

3.6 

75 

86 

100 

86 

71 

86 

86 

71 

100 











. 



.... 

Week 

begin¬ 

ning— 

Illinois 
River above 
railroad 
bridge at 
Pekin. 

Illinois 
River at 
Kingston, 3 
miles below 
Pekin. 

Illinois 
River above 
Grafton. 

Mississippi 
River, 2 miles 
above 
Grafton. 

Mississippi 
River, 1 mile 
above Alton. 

Mississippi 
River op¬ 
posite Hart¬ 
ford. 

Missouri 
River op¬ 
posite Fort 
Belief on- 
taine. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Bac¬ 

teria. 

B. 

coli 

com¬ 

mu¬ 

nis. 

Sept. 28.. 

Oct. 5_ 

Oct. 12... 
Oct. 19... 
Oct. 26... 
Nov. 2... 
Nov. 9... 
Nov. 16. . 
Nov. 23.. 

36.5 

20.4 

202 

81.7 

9.2 

5 

7.0 

4.3 

3.3 

100 

100 

100 

100 

71 

100 

100 

100 













387 

385 

221 

481 

275 

41 

21.1 

15.8 

100 

100 

100 

100 

86 

100 

100 

1.4 

1.1 

2.1 

2.6 

7.1 

1.8 

4.8 

3.7 

57 

57 

43 

57 

43 

14 

29 

0.82 
.79 
.68 
.68 
1.2 
.99 
2.7 
5.3 

29 

71 

0 

43 

43 

71 

57 

100 

0.56 

.67 

1.6 

1.9 

1 

1.5 

1.5 

2.2 

100 

100 

100 

100 

-\50 

86 

57 

43 

0.74 

1.5 

2.6 

3.5 

2.5 

3.5 

1.5 
4.9 

100 

100 

86 

57 

50 

71 

29 

50 

11.1 

31.8 

37.9 

33.6 

21.7 

49.2 
30.4 

53.3 

100 

100 

71 

100 

75 

86 

50 

100 


Week 

begin- 

Mississippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, near 
Illinois 
shore. 

Mississippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, near 
Missouri 
shore. 

Mississippi 
River at 
intake 
tower, 
Chain of 
Rocks. 

Reservoir 
at Chain 
of Rocks. 

Reservoir 
at Bissells 
Point. 

Labora¬ 
tory tap, 
1141 Market 
street, St. 
Louis. 

Tap at resi¬ 
dence, 5946 
Garfield 
avenue, St. 
Louis. 

ning— 


B. 


B. 


B. 


B. 


B. 


B. 


B. 


Bac- 

coli 

Bac- 

coli 

Bac- 

coli 

Bac- 

coli 

Bac- 

coli 

Bac- 

coli 

Bac- 

coli 


teria. 

com- 

teria. 

com- 

teria. 

com- 

teria. 

com- 

teria. 

com- 

teria. 

com- 

teria. 

com- 



mu- 


mu- 


mu- 


mu- 


mu- 


mu- 


mu- 



nis. 


nis. 


nis. 


nis. 


nis. 


nis. 


nis. 

SeDt 14 

0.59 

67 

1.1 

75 

1.8 

50 

0.46 

67 

0.14 


0.61 

50 



Sept 21 

5 3 

86 

3.5 

67 

3.5 

83 

1.2 

83 

.47 

83 

.34 

100 



Sept 2K 

1 9 

83 

4.3 

100 

4. 7 

83 

2.2 

100 

. 49 

67 

.42 

67 



Oct. 5.... 

8.5 

100 

7.7 

100 

6.8 

83 

1.75 

100 

.67 

100 

.91 

100 

0.31 

86 

Oct. 12... 

2.1 

100 

10.5 

86 

14.5 

86 

3.0 

100 

.63 

86 

.94 

100 

.38 

100 

Oct. 19... 

2.7 

86 

33.1 

100 

40 

86 

5.6 

100 

1.98 

100 

2.3 

100 

.53 

100 

Oct. 26... 

1.7 

100 

25.5 

100 

34.9 

100 

7.4 

100 

1.4 

86 

1.9 

100 

.40 

100 

Nov. 2... 

3.2 

50 

17.0 

75 

23.5 

75 

5.8 

100 

2.3 

100 

1.1 

43 

3.1 

100 

Nov. 9... 

2.4 

86 

40.9 

86 

45 

86 

7.1 

100 

2.8 

100 

2.5 

86 

3.9 

100 

Nov. 16.. 

2.2 

86 

52 

71 

53.7 

57 

10 

100 

2.6 

100 

3.2 

71 

2.9 

83 

Nov. 23.. 

5.2 

71 

32.9 

100 

39.2 

86 

7.8 

71 

2.9 

83 

2.9 

80 

1 

100 














































































































































































26 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Summing up the results of the third period of examination, the 
witness stated the percentage of samples taken at the various points 
along Mississippi River below Illinois River in which Bacillus coli 
communis was found, as shown in Table 7. (275-277.) 


Table 7. —Proportion of samples of water from designated points in which Bacillus coli 
communis was found, September to November, 1901. 


Sampling point. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

Average. 

Mississippi River at Alton. . 


100 

77 

88.6 

Mississippi River at Hartford. . 


86. 4 

56 

70 

Missouri River at Fort Rellefontaine. 


92.6 

80 

86.2 

Chain of Rocks, Missouri shore. 

76.9 

97 

84.6 

88. 4 

Chain of Rocks, Illinois shore. 

76.9 

97 

77 

81.7 

Chain of Rocks intake. 

76.9 

90 

77 

80 

Bissells Point reservoir. 

86. 4 

94.04 

93.8 

91. 41 

Tap in old o.it.y hall, St. Bonis 

85.7 

97 

80 

87.5 




Discussing the percentage of the removal of bacteria per cubic cen¬ 
timeter at various sampling points in the St. Louis water-supply 
system, the witness gave the evidence set forth in Table 8. (277- 

279.) 

Table 8. —Percentage of removal of bacteria per cubic centimeter at various sampling 
points in the St. Louis water-supply system, September to November, 1901, the number 
in Mississippi River being designated as 100 per cent. 


Sampling point. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

Average. 

Chain of Rocks reservoir. 

48. 43 

85. 6 

81. 5 

71. 84 

Bissells Point. 

86. 05 

90 

93. 5 

90 

Tap in old citv hall.. 

88. 83 

95. 9 

93. 2 

92. 64 

Tap on Garfield avenue. 

98 

92.7 

95. 3 





In discussing further the number of bacteria found at various 
sampling points in the river, the witness called attention to the fact 
that the average number of bacteria in Mississippi River above 
Grafton, as shown by the investigations during the third period, was 
717 and 2,290 during October and November, respectively, while in 
Illinois River above Grafton there were 1,780 and 3,050 during the 
same months, showing that the water of the Illinois contains the 
larger number. (279.) 

Doctor Ravold then considered the results of the investigations of 
the bacterial flora and testified concerning the physical and cultural 
characteristics of the various bacteria isolated during the entire inves¬ 
tigation. The characteristics of the following organisms are set 
forth in volume 1 of the record, pages 280-307, inclusive: 











































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


27 


Bacteria discussed by Dr. A. N. Ravold. 


Bacillus albus. 

B. liquefaciens. 

B. antenniformis. 

B. liquidus. 

B. aquatilis sulcatus I. 

B. megaterium. 

B. aquatilis sulcatus III. 

B. mesentericus vulgatus. 

B. aquatilis sulcatus Y. 

B. nubilis. 

B. arborescens, cliromogenic, orange. 

B. ocraeeus. 

B. aurescens. 

B. plicatus. 

B. aureus. 

B. proteus mirabilis. 

B. brunneus. 

B. proteus zenkeri. 

B. candieans. 

B. pyocyaneus. 

B. cloacae. 

B. rubefaciens, cliromogenic 

B. coli communis. 

B. stellatus. 

B. delicatulus. 

B. subflavus. 

B. desidiosus. 

B. subtilis. 

B. fluorescens incognitis. 

B. subtilis cereus. 

B. fluorescens liquefaciens. 

B. superficialis. 

B. fluorescens tenuis. 

B. ubiquitus. 

B. fluorescens termo. 

B. ureae. 

B. fulvus. 

B. viridis. 

B. helvolus. 

Micrococcus cremoides. 

B. hyalinus. 

M. flavus liquefaciens. 

B. iridescens. 

Sarcina alba. 

B. lactiviscosus. 

S. lutea. 

B. lactis erythrogenes. 



The witness gave extended definitions of bacteriological terms and 
a somewhat minute description of general methods of bacteriological 
procedure. (307-312.) 

He then testified concerning microscopic organisms (algae, etc.), 
describing the Sedgwick-Rafter method of procedure, and stated that 
two series of examinations had been made according to this method 
in connection with the investigations carried on by the city of St. 
Louis. He further stated that the object of this work was to discover 
the micro-organisms connected with sewage pollution, and also to 
attempt to trace the forms found in Lake Michigan water which are 
distinctive from those existing in Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri 
rivers. Two sets of investigations were made—one by George A. 
Johnson, at the St. Louis laboratory, and one by George C. Whipple, of 
Brooklyn, N. Y. The long statement which Doctor Ravold then made 
concerning the number and genera of the organisms found in the 
water at chosen points is reproduced in condensed form in Table 9. 
(312-351.) 


28 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Table 9. —Number of micro-organisms found in water at designated points. 



Lake Michigan. 

Drainage canal at Bear 
Trap dam. 

Family and genus. 

4-mile 

crib. 

Carter 

Harri¬ 

son 

crib. 

10 

miles 

out. 

• Lake 
View 
crib. 

2-mile 

crib. 


J une. 

% 

July 

23. 

July 

30. 

Au¬ 
gust 9. 

Sep¬ 
tem¬ 
ber 7. 

Sep¬ 
tem¬ 
ber 15. 

May 

27 

3. 

10. 

17. 

25. 

Diatomaceae: 

Asterionella. 

100 

42 

10 

84 

100 

71 

73 

18 

120 

40 


19 

12 


4 

10 

8 

2 

1 









14 

20 


33 

05 

3 

31 

14 

32 

22 

4 

23 



6 

12 




0 




TTimfl/ntirliiim 




2 

4 



1 

Mpririinn 









0 

, 10 


11 

4 

14 

» 


4 

0 

1 



Nit.zsehia 

00 

93 

80 

47 

02 

23 

7 

. 

1 

14 

St.pnh a und i sp.iis 





1 

1 


Synedra. 

"080 

400 

290 

100 

200 

313 

110 

101 

180 

90 

Tn.hAlln.ri a. 

30 

12 

20 



55 

10 

5 

10 

3 

Cyanophyceae: 

A nnhflpna 







2 

rhrnnpnopus 

3 



0 





4 


CrpInsrVhserinm 









1 

T ,vnphvft 









1 


Oseilln.rin. 

30 

20 



15 

15 

22 

38 

4 


Chlorophyceae: 

A r t.h rndesm ns. 





2 

1 


4 

Clnstprium 

1 

1 


1 


5 




1 

F.ndorina 





1 




TTvdrodict.yon 






12 

19 



0 

Pandfirina 








3 


Ppdifl strum 

0 

9 

2 

12 

9 




2 

2 

Prot.neneens _ 


2 

4 


1 


Raphidium 

4 

10 


4 


17 

7 

2 



SepnedpsmUs 

10 

4 

4 

3 





5 

Soiroevra.... 

1 



4 

1 




4 


Ulothrix. 

22 

10 

0 

14 

0 

15 

11 

10 

10 


Schizomycetes: 

Rpggiatoa. . 


2 


4 



Crenothrix. 

0 

3 


12 

1 

0 


3 


2 

Leptothrix.. 




0 



Protozoa: 

Amoeba. 

2 


0 


1 

23 





Cryptomonas. 

2 


1 





Dinobrj r on. 

25 

31 

14 


0 


2 


| 

Glenodinium. . . 

15 

0 

8 

2 

4 





Monas. 

0 

15 

9 

12 

19 

32 

19 

21 

0 

47 

Paramaecium. 


13 

14 

12 

38 

Peridinium. 

10 

3 





Phacus. 







2 


2 

Protomonas. 







8 

12 

2 


Synura. 

2 

0 

4 


1 

19 

0 

3 


1 

Tracheiomonas. 





8 




Vorticella. 

1 

2 

1 



7 

4 

4 


0 

Rotifera: 

Anuraea. 

4 

1 

3 

1 



2 



Polyarthra. 


1 

2 






1 

Rotifer. 

2 

4 

1 

2 

1 



2 

• 

2 

Crustacea: 

Bosmina. 




1 


1 



Daphma. 


1 

1 



1 


1 


Miscellaneous. 

25 

13 

14 

17 

10 

3 

27 

10 

1 

14 



Total organisms. 

1,117 

774 

517 

250 

472 

081 

394 

270 

412 

318 

Total genera . 

31 

20 

23 

19 

18 

25 

25 

24 

21 

25 
























































































































































































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 29 

Table 9. —Number of micro-organisms found in water at designated points —Continued. 


Family and genus. 

Drainage canal at Bear 
Trap dam. 

Desplaines River at Joliet. 

July. 

August. 

May 

17. 

June. 

July 

11. 

n. 

20. 

30. 

10. | 

18. 

3. 

10. 17. 

25. 

Diatomacese: 

Asterionella. 

10 

4 

32 

6 

128 

16 

130 

3 

16 

39 

34 

3 

17 

10 

82 

6 

29 

8 

96 

38 

2 

2 

138 

4 

6 

80 

1 

6 

2 

Cyclotella. 

Diatoma. 

10 

9 


Himantidium. 

6 


Meridion. 

6 


7 





Navicula. 

6 

28 

40 

14 


14 

12 

220 

4 

2 

5 

40 

153 

6 

5 

12 

196 

42 

12 

34 

200 

12 



19 

60 

240 

4 

Nitzschia. 

6 

30 

10 

6 

4 

3 

2 

10 

4 

88 


20 

90 

49 

290 

14 

Synedra. 

300 

6 

Tabellaria. 

Cyanophyceae: 

Chroococcus. 



Coelosphserium. 

2 



. 






Endoriana. 










Lyngbya. 


2 


2 

6 

3 

58 

3 

60 




1 

75 

Oscillaria. 

6 

2 


10 

19 

61 

Chlorophyceae: 

Arthrodesmus. 


1 

Closterium. 





2 

1 


1 



Desmidium. 







2 

4 


Dictyospbaerium. 

1 

1 

1 







Eudorina. 



1 




1 

1 

2 


Hydrodictyon. 


4 






Pandorina. 








i 

7 

5 


Pediastrum. 


6 





2 

5 

4 

2 

6 


1 

Protococcus. 

1 

2 






Raphfdium. 



2 




1 


Scenedesmus. 





2 

16 

2 

10 


Snirogrvra. 






4 



Ulothrix. 

8 

10 

2 

8 

12 






20 

6 

Scbizomycetes: 

Beggiatoa. 

3 






Crenothrix. 



3 

, 


1 



Protozoa: 

Chloromonas. 

1 

6 

10 

8 








Monas. 

2 


4 

31 

6 

6 

4 

2 

27 

3 

2 

10 

1 


12 

4 

2 

2 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

33 

Parana aecium. 



Protom on as. 



7 

6 

Synura. 





2 

Vo rt.iop.il a 

2 

3 



1 

2 

2 

4 

3 

3 

1 



Rotifera: 

Rotifer 


2 

1 

12 



2 

Crustacea: 

Tlanhnia 





\f isopllanpons 

6 

2 

7 


6 

22 

14 

40 

■ 15 

Total organisms. 


182 

26 

147 

16 

284 

16 

514 

13 

323 

14 

358 

18 

508 

21 

408 

15 

242 

15 

644 

22 

542 

21 

Total genera. 


1 





















































































































































































30 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Table 9. —Number of micro-organisms found in water at designated points —Continued. 


Family and'genus. 


Diatomaceae: 

Asterionella 

Cyclotella. 

Diatoma. 

Himantidium. . 

Melasira. 

Navicula. 

Nitzschia. 

Pleurosigma.... 
Stephanodiscus. 

Synedra. 

Tabellaria. 

Cyanophycea?: 

Lyngbya. 

Oscillaria. 

Chlorophyceae: 

Arthrodesmus.. 

Closterium. 

Conferva. 

Eudorina. 

Hydrodictyon.. 

Pandorina. 

Pediastrum 
Protococcus.... 
Scenedesmus... 

Spirogyra. 

Ulothrix. 

Zygnema. 

Schizomycetes: 

Crenothrix. 

Protozoa: 

Cryptomonas.. 

Monas. 

Paramaecium 

Peridinium. 

Protomonas.... 

Synura. 

Vorticella. 

Rotifera: 

Anuraea. 

Polyarthra. 

Rotifer. 

Crustacea: 

Cyclops. 

Daphnia. 

Miscellaneous. 


Total organisms 
Total genera 


May 

27. 


41 


Illinois River above Peoria. 
June. 


12 


23 


71 


19 

4 

14 

5 


22 


3. 


61 

8 

38 


100 

12 


29 

6 

9 

12 


12 


2 

1 

12 


251 

19 


329 

19 


10 . 


186 

6 


27 


22 


18. 


21 

’:ii’ 


25. 


94 

16 


31 


12 

40 


98 209 


16 


64 


1 

12 


18 

12 

6 


6 

5 

6 
12 


6 


315 

18 


238 

16 


10 

5 


30 


2 

1 

43 


533 

17 


Julv 

11 . 


120 

4 

4 


14 


153 

12 


50 


40 


422 

17 


Illinois River above Grafton. 


May 

28. 


18 

1 

7 

1 


1 

46 


June. 


3. 


43 

"4 

"2 


14 

1 


280 


28 


8 

4 

24 


11 


12 

1 


113 

20 


436 

15 


10 . 


18. 25. 


12 

i40' 


3 

22 ' 


30 

2 


20 


6 

'90 


19 


207 56 153 

8 11 10 


July 

11 . 


170 


6 

1 


7 

10 

3 

9 


2 

1 


228 

15 


(N O 






































































































































































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 31 

Table 9 .—Number of micro-organisms found in water at designated points— Continued. 


Family and genus. 

Mississippi 
River above 
Grafton. 

Mississippi 
River above 
Alton. 

Mississippi 
River at Hart¬ 
ford. 

Mississippi 
River at intake 
tower. 


May 

June 

July 

May 

June 

July 

May 

June 

July 

May 

June 

July 


28. 

3. 

11. 

28. 

3. 

11. 

29. 

3. 

11. 

28. 

3. 

11. 

Diatomaceae: 













Asterionella. 

4 

39. 

12 

12 

4 

60 

9 

14 

4 

21 

4 

16 

Cyclotella. 


4 


4 



4 

1 



o 

9 

Cymbelia. 



2 

2 



3 

2 


i 


Diatoma. 

3 

12 


8 

4 

4 

6 


5 


9 

Himantidium. 







3 


2 



9 

Meridion. 

4 



6 



2 



6 


0 

Navicula. 

6 



8 

2 

2 

5 


5 

1 4 

11 

Nitzschia. 

9 

60 

12 

10 

5 

15 

19 

30 

12 

32 

24 

16 

Synedra. 

30 

49 

239 

41 

220 

96 

50 

60 

22 

40 

12 

39 

Tabellaria. 

7 

9 

. 6 

9 


6 

12 

4 

4 

8 

6 

12 

Cyanophyceae: 







Coelosphaerium. 







4 

4 

5 



9 

Lyngbya. 




2 



6 






Oscillaria. 

2 

14 

2 

2 

19 


4 

10 

10 

20 

16 

22 

Chlorophyceae: 








Arthrodesmus. 




4 


1 



2 

1 


1 

Closterium. 



1 

2' 



1 


1 

3 


9 

Desmidium. 

1 





2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 


Dictyosphaerium. 







6 

2 




Hydro dictyon. 

17 



4 



1 





4 

Pediastrum. 


17 


9 

38 

11 

12 

6 

4 

16 

9 

3 

Protococcus. 



5 

3 

4 


2 


5 

5 

Scenedesmus. 

8 

16 


4 

16 

12 

6 

12 

19 

26 

8 

14 

Spirogyra. 




1 

5 


4 


8 

1 

Ulothrix. 

12 

22 


4 

29 




10 

4 


8 

Protozoa: 












Cryptomonas. 

1 



3 



3 

4 



2 


Glenodinium. 



1 










Monas. 

3 

10 

5 

12 

8 

3 

10 

12 

8 

6 

12 . 

9 

Paramaecium. 


1 


1 


1 



2 

1 


1 

Synura. 

5 

2 

2 


3 

3 

9 

3 

3 

3 



Vorticella. 




1 





2 




Rotifera: 













Anuraea. 

1 





1 







Rotifer. 





1 




1 

2 



Miscellaneous. 

6 

12 

2 

5 

6 

2 

7 

11 

2 

3 

1 

2 

Total organisms. 

119 

260 

289 

152 

364 

219 

190 

175 

142 

200 

114 

177 

Total genera . . T . 

17 

14 

12 

24 

14 

15 

25 

15 

24 

18 

14 

22 


Witness then took up a part of the bacteriological data afforded 
by the investigations of the year 1900 and assembled it in weekly 
averages of the daily determinations made. (353-376.) A chart 
(Complainant’s Exhibit No. 1) was presented, showing such data for: 

Illinois river above Grafton. 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River above Alton. 

Mississippi River opposite Hartford. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

Chain of Rocks near Missouri shore. 

Chain of Rocks near Illinois shore. 

Chain of Rocks at intake tower. 

The information in this chart is all included in Table 4. 

The witness then endeavored to show that the bacteriological data 
give positive evidence of the commingling of the waters of Illinois and 
Mississippi rivers at the St. Louis water intake at Chain of Rocks. His 




















































































































































32 


POLLUTION OF KIVEES BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


observations were based on the fact, shown by a comparison of num¬ 
bers of bacteria and river gage heights, observations being taken coin- 
cidently, that whenever there is a rise in either of the three streams— 
Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers—there is a coincident rise in 
the number of bacteria, and it appears that the greater the rise in 
water level the greater the proportionate number of bacteria. This was 
explained by stating that a rise in either of these streams is caused 
by melting snows or ice or by great precipitation, both of which 
result in the washing into the rivers of large amounts of filth and 
earth, which teem with bacteria. The witness then cited a case which 
appeared in the examination series beginning January 23 and ending 
October 9, 1900, as follows: 

Illinois River was high from February 12 to 20, 1900 (dates approxi¬ 
mate). At that time the Mississippi was low and covered with ice, 
as was also the Missouri. A thaw occurred in the whole Illinois River 
Valley, with resulting flood. The bacteriological examination shows 
that the waters of Illinois River contain enormous numbers of bac¬ 
teria, while those of the Mississippi above the mouth of the Illinois 
and of the Missouri above its mouth contain a comparatively small 
amount. During the two weeks beginning February 13 and 20, 
respectively, the average number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in 
Illinois River at Grafton was 257,600 and 221,800, while in the Missis¬ 
sippi above Grafton during the same period the number was 161,000 
and 105,500, and at Fort Belief on taine, on Missouri River, the number 
was 52,500 and 69,500. As a result of the intermingling of these 
waters, the number of bacteria in the water at the Chain of Rocks 
intake was 133,500 and 112,000. This, in the opinion of the witness, 
clearly proved that Illinois River water enters the intake. Chart 
marked Complainant’s Exhibit No. 2 was presented to support this 
contention. The witness called attention to the fact that during the 
week of January 23 the bacteria in Illinois River numbered 240,000, 
in Missouri River 155,000, and at the intake 150,000, the intake water 
corresponding very closely with the Missouri water. During the 
week of January 30 the number of bacteria in Mississippi River on 
the Illinois shore was 150,000, on the Missouri shore 75,000, and at 
the intake 130,000, these figures being taken within the cross section 
defined by the Chain of Rocks intake; and the contention was made 
that the figures indicate that the water at the intake was during that 
week comprised more largely of Mississippi River water than of 
Missouri River water. (376-381.) 

Several charts were then introduced, and were designated Com¬ 
plainant’s Exhibits Nos. 3 to 9, inclusive (382-404), showing weekly 
averages of the daily quantitative determinations of the number of 
bacteria per cubic centimeter in water taken from Illinois River dur- 


TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


33 

ing 1900, together with the stages of the river during the same periods, 
at the following points: 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

Mississippi River at Hartford. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks near Missouri shore. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks near Illinois shore. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, intake tower. 

These charts were apparently introduced for the purpose of showing 
the relationship between the rise and fall of the stream and the num¬ 
ber of bacteria per cubic centimeter found in the water, and from the 
evidence presented by them the opinion of the witness was that coin¬ 
cident with a rise in the river there is always an increase in the 
number of bacteria, while, on the other hand, a decrease in the number 
of bacteria coincides with a fall in the river gage height. It was fur¬ 
ther observed that during steady periods in the stream there is a 
constant and steady decrease in the number of bacteria. 

Two charts were then introduced, ultimately marked Complainant’s 
Exhibits Nos. 11 and 12, for the purpose of showing the effect of the 
Chicago drainage canal on the water in the river at Peoria. These 
charts, which are not reproduced, contain the results of the bac¬ 
teriological determinations made during the period from September 
to November, 1901, assembled in diagrammatic form for the following 
sampling points: 

Chicago drainage canal at Bear Trap dam, Lockport. 

Desplaines River at Ruby street, Joliet. 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s bridge, Joliet. 

Illinois River 3 miles above Peoria. 

From an examination of these diagrams the witness noted an enor¬ 
mous fluctuation in the bacterial content at the Bear Trap dam, the 
number varying from 25,000 to 7,200,000 per cubic centimeter. The 
variations are relatively as great and are practically synchronous at 
the three lower sampling points. The record of river stages at Peoria 
indicates that the river was steady during this period to an extraor¬ 
dinary degree; in fact, the greatest change in the river levels during 
any one period of twenty-four hours was 0.2 foot, and the entire 
variation from beginning to end of the period was 0.6 foot. It was 
claimed by Doctor R avoid that this is unimpeachable testimony con¬ 
cerning the effect of the Chicago drainage canal on the river at Peoria. 
The great diversity in the number of bacteria in the water, along with 
the extraordinary steadiness in the river stage, taken in conjunction 
with the observed fact that in Desplaines River above Bear Trap dam 
comparatively small numbers of bacteria were found, could, in the 

irr 194—07-3 




34 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


opinion of the witness, be accounted for in no other way than by the 
entrance of sewage from the Chicago drainage canal. (449-460.) 

The witness then introduced another chart, showing the results of 
daily quantitative determinations of bacteria and the daily stages in 
Illinois River from October 1 to November 27, 1901, at Grafton, 163 
miles below Peoria by river. He stated that the greatest number of 
bacteria per cubic centimeter occurred November 17; that while there 
was a slight rise in the river on that date it was not as high as it had 
been from October 21 to 30, when the number of bacteria had been 
comparatively low. No further attempt was made by the witness to 
discuss these results, although it is clear from a reading of his state¬ 
ments that he inferred that such results lead to the belief that the 
great mass of bacteria were due to artificial contamination rather than 
to any natural causes, and therefore were presumably contributed by 
the drainage canal. 

The witness then outlined the results of a series of experiments 
made to determine the longevity of Bacillus typhosus in sterilized 
distilled water and in sterilized water from chosen points in Mississippi 
and Illinois rivers. These results are set forth in condensed form in 
Table 10. (468-470.) 


Table 10.— Longevity, in days, of Bacillus typhosus in sterilized ivater under various 

conditions. 


Source of water. 

Cultures in dark¬ 
ness at 10° C. 

Cultures in dark¬ 
ness at 20° C. 

Cultures in open 
window facing 
east, in summer. 


A. 

B. 

C. 

A. 

B. 

c. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

Distilled. 

51 

25 

22 

22 

54 

30 

22 

25 

45 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

59 


40 


37 



45 

60 

99 

Drainage canal at Lockport. 

45 


22 

54 

54 


40 

31 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

59 

57 

57 


57 


Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks. 

59 

59 

34 

54 

55 

54 


46 

45 


A second series of tests on the longevity of Bacillus typhosus, made 
to determine the length of time in which the bacillus persists in live 
water, was then described. Samples of water were collected at vari¬ 
ous times from Chicago River, the drainage canal at Lockport, Illinois 
River at Peoria, and Mississippi River at the Chain of Rocks intake. 
Then 200 c. c. of each of these samples were poured into sterilized 
Erlemeyer flasks and carefully stoppered. Some flasks were exposed 
to sunlight by placing them upon a shelf in a window facing the 
south, where the direct rays of the sun impinged on them from 10.45 
a. m. to 2.15 p. m., the total average time of exposure daily being 
about three hours. Others were kept in cold storage. The results 
were as shown in Table 11. (470-477.) 
















































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


35 


Table 11. — Longevity, in days, of Bacillus typhosus in water from various sources. 


Sampling point. 

Length of life in— 

Sunlight. 

Refrig¬ 

erator. 

Chicago River at Adams street. 

4 

5.5 

Drainage canal at Western avenue, Chicago. 

6 

7.5 

Drainage canal at Lockport... .7. 

4.75 

10.66 

Drainage canal above controlling works, Lockport. 

9 

Drainage canal at Jackson street, Joliet.t. 

9 

13 

Illinois River above Peoria. 

7.66 

11.5 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

7 

15 

Laboratory tap, St. Louis. 

7 

12 

Chicago River at Adams street (sterilized water). 

16 

Drainage canal at Locknort (sterilized water 1__ 

23 



The witness then discussed the results of other tests during June, 
July, and August, 1900. Sterilized distilled water at 10° C., culture A 
thirty-three days, B thirty-five days, C thirty-one days; sterilized 
Mississippi water, Grafton, culture A fifty-five days, B fifty-two days, 
C fifty-seven days; sterilized Missouri water, Fort Bellefontaine, cult¬ 
ure A fifty-five days, B sixty-two days, C sixty-five days; sterilized 
Illinois River water, Lockport, culture A forty-four days, B fifty- 
eight days, C thirty-one days ; sterilized Mississippi water, intake, cult¬ 
ure A fifty-one days, B fifty-four days, C fifty-two days. (477 -478.) 

Testifying further, the witness stated that it was impossible to 
obtain in laboratory experiments the conditions which prevail in a 
running stream; but inasmuch as the laboratory conditions are more 
unfavorable to the longevity of typhoid bacilli than the stream con¬ 
ditions the results of laboratory experiments are conservative. He 
said that it had never been determined how long bacteria survive in 
a running stream. (478-480.) 

In reply to questions concerning the population tributary to the 
Illinois River system, and the Chicago drainage canal, the amount of 
sewage derived from the population and the effect thereof on the 
streams involved, Doctor Ravold testified as follows; 

The sewage of upward of 2,000,000 people enters the Chicago 
drainage canal above the controlling works at Lockport. Determina¬ 
tions made by the witness and confirmed by the work of other inves¬ 
tigators reveal the fact that from 3 to 6 ounces, dry weight, of fecal 
matter and 40 ounces of urine are voided each day by the normal 
human being. A calculation based on 3 ounces of solid matter and 
40 ounces of liquid per capita, and 2,000,000 as the population tribu¬ 
tary to the Chicago drainage canal, would give a total excretion of 
187 J tons of fecal matter and 670,000 gallons of urine per day. It is 
commonly assumed that the amount of sewage in a city is fairly 
represented by the amount of water consumed. The water con¬ 
sumption in Chicago being placed at 150 gallons per capita per day, 
the total daily sewage discharge would be 360,000,000 [300,000,000 fi 
gallons. (767-769.) 























36 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Doctor Ravold then calculated the percentage of sewage to water 
in the Chicago drainage canal at the controlling works. The maxi¬ 
mum discharge over the controlling dam being 300,000 cubic feet 
per minute, the proportion of sewage to pure lake water would be 1 
to 9. The effect of all this contamination was to render the water at 
the controlling works extremely foul, and the results of the bacterio¬ 
logical examinations which he had presented were sufficient to sub¬ 
stantiate this statement. One of the observers employed by the city 
of St. Louis had seen 500 dead fish pass over the controlling dam in a 
period of ten minutes. (769-770.) 

With reference to the city of Peoria, the witness stated that a 
calculation based on a population of 56,100, as given by the census of 
1900, the minimum flow of Illinois River past Peoria of 1,200 cubic 
feet per second, and a sewage outfall at Peoria proportional to that 
of Chicago, namely, 150 gallons per capita per day, would give the pro¬ 
portion of sewage to water 1 to 92 at the low-river stage. The witness 
stated that if the 300,000 cubic feet per second added by the Chicago 
drainage canal were unpolluted lake water the dilution of sewage at 
Peoria would be 1 to 413, which, in his opinion, would reduce to a 
minimum the danger from Peoria pollution to the places below, such 
as Grafton. (772-773.) 

Doctor Ravold then gave facts concerning the population in the 
drainage basin of Illinois River and the sanitary district of Chicago, 
giving credit for the data to Lyman E. Cooley and Jacob A. Harman. 
The information is summarized in Table 12. (774-776.) 


Table 12 .—Population of Illinois River drainage basin. 


River basin. 

Flow. 

Population. 

Urban. 

Rural. 

Total. 

Desplaines River. 

Second-feet. 
13.21 

20,354 
5,344 
26,697 
72,763 
17,543 

45,247 
10,890 
140, 441 
89,889 
43,257 
30.106 

75,601 
16,234 
170 138 

Dupage River. 

32. 77 

Kankakee River. 

500. 24 

Fox River.•». 

329. 95 

162,652 
60,800 
35,353 
76,074 
281.358 
57,028 
41,453 
8,823 
320,016 
1,800,000 

Vermilion River. 

4.00 

Mackinaw River. 

5,247 
19,619 
103,720 
12,739 
9,155 

Spoon River. 

87. 76 

56, 428 

Sangamon River. 

372.30 

177,638 
44,289 
32,296 
8,823 
184,877 

Crooked Creek. 

Macoupin Creek. 


McKees Creek. 



Illinois River a. 


135,139 
1,800,000 

Sanitary district of Chicago. 






a Not including drainage canal. 

Taking up the sources of pollution along Mississippi River below 
Illinois River, the witness stated that Alton had a population of 
15,000. The sewage from this city is discharged into the Mississippi 
by five main outlets, three of which empty into the river behind 
dikes, which effectually check that portion of the sewage from becom¬ 
ing mixed at once with the waters of the river. (776.) 
































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


37 


He then summarized the bacteriological evidence with reference to 
sampling stations maintained above Alton and at Hartford, a few 
miles below Alton, the results of which are given in Table 13. (778- 

778.) 

Table 13. — Monthly averages of quantitative bacteriological determinations of Mississippi 
River water 1 mile above Alton and opposite Hartford, and percentage of samples in 
which Bacillus coli communis was jound. 


Month. 

Alton. 

Hartford. 

Bacteria 
per cubic 
centi¬ 
meter. 

Per cent 
of B. coli 
com¬ 
munis. 

Bacteria 
per cubic 
centi¬ 
meter. 

Ter cent 
of B.coli 
com¬ 
munis. 

1900. 





January. 

118,800 

14 

90,600 

17 

February. 

192,500 

17 

190.600 

50 

March. 

192,300 

51 

208,300 

52 

April. 

29, 400 

39 

29,700 

41 

May. 

10,300 

54 

12,800 

86 

June. 

8,200 

60 

5,800 

61 

July. 

7’700 

52 

61,000 

55 

August. 

2,400 

88 

2,100 

89 

September. 

2,600 

90 

2,800 

93 

October. 

2,100 

100 

2, 400 

100 

1901. 





October. 

1,137 

100 

2.141 

86.4 

November. 

1,566 

77 

3,000 

56 


Taking up the consideration of this evidence, the witness stated that 
if it is assumed that the whole sewage of Alton becomes mixed with 
the water of the Mississippi at once and is carried directly toward 
Hartford with a minimum flow of 25,000 cubic feet per second in the 
river, it will be seen that the Alton sewage, representing 15,000 people, 
is diluted over 70,000 times; in fact, the results in Table 13 above 
indicate that the sewage is so largely disposed of by dilution that the 
bacteriological results at Alton and Hartford show no difference. 
From the evidence thus presented, the witness asserted that it was 
his expert opinion that “the sewage of the city of Alton has no effect 
on the sanitary condition of the Mississippi River water at Hartford.” 
(778-779.) 

Doctor Ravold then proceeded to a discussion of the work per¬ 
formed by him with reference to Bacillus prodigiosus and its 
longevity when placed in the waters of Mississippi and Illinois rivers. 
Inasmuch as the testimony created considerable comment at the time 
and was brought out by the witness as a strategic move of great import¬ 
ance to the plaintiff’s case, it will be given nearly in full. (779-787.) 

The Bacillus prodigiosus is a micro-organism discovered by Ehren- 
berg. It is a trifle larger than the typhoid bacillus and is nonspore 
forming and nonpathogenic. The name was derived from the fact 
that in European countries the host in the chalice of Catholic churches 
has a red growth upon it which in early times was declared to be the 
blood of Christ. This red growth was investigated and found to be 
































38 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


in one case a micro-organism which produces within its cell a red pig¬ 
ment. This is the legend connected with the name, and it was called 
therefore B. prodigiosus. It has been very rarely found in the waters 
of America and apparently is not a germ which is domestic to this 
country, although it is said that in Europe and in Egypt it is found 
abundantly in surface waters. It grows very freely on the ordinary 
culture media, and its behavior and appearance are so characteristic 
that it is easily identified. 

In the investigation made by the witness, beginning in August, 1899, 
and extending to August, 1900, every sample of water that was 
received was examined for distinctive bacilli, but B. prodigiosus was 
never found. Throughout the examinations it never appeared in over 
10,000 samples of water from Lake Michigan, the drainage canal, Mis¬ 
sissippi and Illinois rivers, except when it was placed there by the St. 
Louis investigators. It was therefore concluded that B. prodigiosus 
was not a normal inhabitant of the streams under investigation and 
that it was rarely, if ever, present. 

In August, 1900, the witness prepared a 40-gallon barrel full of a 
broth culture of B. prodigiosus. The barrel was first sterilized with 
steam heat and was then filled with boiling hot water and allowed to 
stand until cool, but while the water was boiling hot 1 pound of steril¬ 
ized Liebig’s beef extract was mixed into it. After two or three days 
when the water was sufficiently cool, a large number of B. prodigiosus 
in a broth culture were placed in it. This particular culture of B. 
prodigiosus came from Europe and was given to the witness bv Dr. 
Ludwig Bremer several years previous. The barrel culture was 
allowed to develop until it was found that each cubic centimeter of the 
broth contained over 1,000,000,000 bacilli. August 31, 1900, this bar¬ 
rel of prodigiosus broth was emptied into the Mississippi just below 
the mouth of Illinois River. September 3, four days later, the organ¬ 
ism was found in a sample collected in the channel of the river above 
Alton, but at no other place. September 20 the experiment was 
repeated. A barrel containing 40 gallons of the same culture was 
emptied at the same point, and September 23 the organism was found 
in a sample collected near the Illinois shore of the Mississippi at Chain 
of Rocks. October 18 the bacterium was again found in a sample col¬ 
lected from the laboratory tap at the old city hall, St. Louis, and Octo¬ 
ber 24 in a sample collected near the Illinois shore of the Mississippi 
at Chain of Rocks. 

Preparations were then made for an extensive experiment which it 
was believed would be conclusive. The object was to empty into the 
Chicago drainage canal a large quantity of Bacillus prodigiosus and to 
identify it, if possible, along Illinois River and even to the St. Louis 
intake. The witness made the following preliminary statement: “I 
must say that in the first place I needed a courageous man to do this 


TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


39 


thing a very powerful man—and I didn't know where to look for him 
except in a brother of mine whom I brought up from Arizona; he 
knows a thing or two about taking care of himself and is physically a 
powerful man/ November 6, 1901, “in spite of the active vigilance 
of the police,” E. J. Ravold successfully emptied into the drainage 
canal at Lemont, 8 miles above the Bear Trap dam, 107 barrels of 
prodigiosus broth, which contained 40 gallons each. There were over 
1,000,000,000 bacilli per cubic centimeter in each of these barrels. 

All the laboratories along the river were notified and samples were 
collected every hour of the day and night at the Bear Trap dam, in the 
drainage canal; at Joliet, Peoria, and Grafton on Illinois River; and 
at the intake of the St. Louis waterworks at Chain of Rocks. The 
bacillus was not found by Dr. W. C. G. Kirchner, stationed at Joliet. 
It was found at the St. Louis laboratory in a sample collected by Mr. 
Werner at the intake tower, Chain of Rocks, at 8.45 a. m., December 
4, and again on the 5th, in the sample collected at 9 a. m. It was 
found December 6 in a sample collected by Mr. Homer from Illinois 
River above Grafton at 8 a. m., and again in a sample taken from the 
same point at midnight, December 7. (779-784.) 

Doctor Ravold then described experiments made to determine the 
longevity of Bacillus prodigiosus, the results of which are set forth in 
Table 4.' (785.) 


Table 14. — Longevity of Bacillus prodigiosus in water under different conditions. 


Source of water. 

Steril¬ 

ized. 

Place kept. 

Duration 
of sun¬ 
light. 

Temper¬ 

ature. 

Lon¬ 

gevity. 

Laboratory tap a. m . 

Yes... 

Open air. 

Hours. 

9.5 

° C. 

Days. 

2 

Drainage canal above Lockport. 

No.... 

W indow. 

3 


10 

Desplaines River at, .ToIiet, 

No.. 

.do. 

3 


7 

Chicago River at Adams street 

Y es... 

.do. 

3 


11 

Drainapp eana! at. Loekport, 

No.... 

Refrigerator. 

Dark. 

16 

32 

Desplaines River at .loliet 

No.... 

.do. 

Dark. 

16 

141 
31 

Drainage canal at Western avenue, Chicago.. 
Illinois Rivp.rat, Ppkin hririee 

No.... 

.do. 

Dark. 

- 16 

No.... 

.do. 

Dark. 

16 

f 53 






a Suspended on cord, 8 feet from south wall of laboratory building. 


Comparing the above results with similar tests made on the bacillus 
of typhoid, which are outlined in previous pages, Doctor Ravold con¬ 
cluded as follows: 

With these micro-organisms side by side, comparative estimates 
were made of the longevity of Bacillus typhosus and B. prodigiosus in 
separate samples of water, collected at the same time and place, and 
kept under the same conditions as to temperature, sunlight, and 
darkness. B. prodigiosus in sunlight, in living waters, that is, non- 
sterilized waters, lived from two to ten days; B. typhosus in sunlight 
and in living waters lived from twenty-four hours to. ten days. B. 
prodigiosus lived in the dark, in living waters, from thirty to fifty 
days and was still alive when the experiments ceased; B. typhosus 







































40 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


under like conditions lived from twenty-four hours to twenty-one 
days, showing that B. prodigiosus is an organism which closely resem¬ 
bles B. typhosus in its power to resist unfavorable surroundings. 

As a result of these experiments the witness declared it to be 
highly probable that a typhoid bacillus can be carried in its virulent 
condition from the Chicago sewers, by way of the drainage canal and 
Illinois River, into the St. Louis water intake, especially during high- 
water conditions. (788) 

Continuing, the witness testified that it was impossible to deter¬ 
mine the absolute longevity of the typhoid bacillus in running water, 
because the conditions which prevail in a running stream can not be 
reproduced in laboratory experiments. In stagnant waters, such as 
are kept under observation in laboratory experiments, the water 
bacilli destroy the life of the typhoid bacilli. If typhoid bacilli are 
placed in foul water, such as that taken from the Chicago drainage 
canal, the water bacilli increase enormously, but the typhoid bacilli 
do not increase. The destructive action of the water bacillus on 
organic matter, both solid and liquid, in water results in the pro¬ 
duction of poisons which act deleteriously on both the water bacillus 
itself and the pathogenic organisms in the water, so that in labora¬ 
tory experiments bacilli die much more quickly in living water than 
they do in water which has been sterilized. In streams, however, 
the typhoid bacilli, which are motile, can move out of the influence 
of these poisons and thus prolong their life. (790-791) 

In response to a series of questions concerning the probability of 
destruction of bacteria by sunlight in streams, the witness stated 
that the assumption that bacteria were destroyed in a few hours by 
this cause is unfounded, although there is no doubt that the effect of 
sunlight is detrimental. Practically, this effect depends on the char¬ 
acter of the stream and especially the turbidity of the water and the 
depth to which it will admit the sun’s rays. A turbid water will pro¬ 
tect bacteria from the sun; in the Illinois, for example, the effect 
of the sun would be dissipated in a depth of less than 1 foot. It 
was then brought out, by leading questions of counsel, that in the 
opinion of the witness the bacteria are endowed with instincts of 
self-preservation and, being motile, can escape from adverse condi¬ 
tions in the water. In case the sun’s rays are detrimental, they can 
go deeper into the water, and if they enter strata of water having a 
greater velocity than at the surface or at the bottom of the stream, 
they will be carried downstream at a faster rate, to the increased 
detriment of municipalities along the lower reaches of the stream 
which take their supply from it. (797-799) 

The witness then asserted that in his opinion the bacteriological 
experiments indicate that bacteria discharged by the drainage canal, 
especially in high-river stages, are carried into Mississippi River by 


TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


41 


way of Illinois River and enter the intake of the St. Louis water¬ 
works. Bacteriologically, the water of the Mississippi at the St. Louis 
intake is impure and unfit for human consumption. (799-803) 

The witness then sought to justify his conclusions taken from his 
experimental work on longevity of the typhoid bacillus as follows: 

Bacillus typhosus will survive in sterilized distilled water, or water 
containing no food supply, “a great number of days.” In sterilized 
river water containing no water bacteria, but retaining the food supply 
and many of the toxins produced by bacterial life, they will live “a 
great number of days," experiments having shown that at the end of 
sixty-five days they were still alive. In unsterilized river waters, or 
“ living waters, " in flasks sown with typhoid the water bacteria increase 
enormouslv either in the sunshine or in the dark refrigerator at 16° C., 

O 7 

up to a point at which they have apparently exceeded the food supply 
and—what is more important—have produced toxins which injure or 
actually destroy the other bacteria. Nevertheless, in the experiments 
of the witness the typhoid bacillus lived under these identical condi¬ 
tions a maximum period of twenty-one days. Several theories which 
have been promulgated to account for the disappearance of bacteria 
in living waters were then explained. First, the plankton, or the 
lower forms of animal and vegetable life which inhabit waters, are 
said to feed on bacteria. This, according to the witness, is not sub¬ 
stantiated by any scientific proof. The second theory assumes the 
absorption of food supply by the associated bacteria. The witness 
believes this to be unimportant, because of the fact that, as experi¬ 
ments show, the typhoid bacillus lives for “a great number of days" 
in distilled water. Third, the toxins produced by the associated bac¬ 
teria have a destructive action on the typhoid bacilli. Now, in 
streams where water is in constant motion, carrying away the toxins 
produced, and where the food supply is abundant and the bacteria 
per cubic centimeter less numerous, the typhoid bacillus can swim 
away from “ uncomfortable surroundings.” It would therefore seem 
that the conditions which prolong the life of the typhoid bacillus 
would act more favorably in a running stream than in the stagnant 
water of a laboratory flask. Therefore, in the opinion of the witness, 
conclusions based on laboratory experiments err, if at all, on the side 
of safety. (804-807.) 

The laboratory experiments indicate that bacteria would live from 
four to twenty-one days in the various streams connecting the Chicago 
drainage canal with the Mississippi at St. Louis. If, however, the 
more favorable conditions in the running streams were taken into 
consideration, a conservative estimate of the longevity would be from 
fifteen to thirty days. Assuming, then, that the time consumed in 
traveling from Chicago to the St. Louis intake would be seventeen 
days, and allowing three days more for storage at St. Louis and final 


42 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


distribution, the witness regarded it as highly probable that typhoid 
organisms would be delivered to the consumer in a condition suffi- 
ciently virulent to cause disease in a susceptible individual. (807- 
808.) 

After discussing the various factors which cause the disappearance 
of bacteria in running water—namely, aeration, dilution, sunlight, 
sedimentation, disappearance of food supply, and production of 
toxins—the witness stated that sedimentation and dilution are the 
prime factors, and that in case a large number of pathogenic bacteria 
are deposited on the bottom of a stream by sedimentation they would 
not necessarily be killed by this process, but would be washed up 
again by any disturbance, such as a freshet or dredging, and would 
be carried downstream and probably cause disease. Under such an 
assumption the witness admitted that the longevity of the organism 
would be a factor and that some of them would be destroyed by infu¬ 
sorial life. (809-813.) 

The witness then considered the series of samples collected between 

February 8 and 20, 1900. These samples came from Illinois River at 

Peoria and Grafton, from Mississippi River above Grafton and at 

Alton and Hartford, from Missouri River at Fort Beliefontaine, and 

from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks along the cross section 

defined by the intake tower and the Illinois and Missouri shores. 
«/ 

The samples from Illinois River at Peoria and Grafton were almost 
black, the Mississippi water above Grafton was remarkably clear, 
while Mississippi River flowing by Alton and Hartford showed a 
mixture of the two waters. That from Missouri River was exceed¬ 
ing^ clear, as was that taken from Mississippi River near the Mis¬ 
souri shore at Chain of Rocks, but the Mississippi water near the 
Illinois shore was black. At the intake tower there was a distinct 
mixture of the clear and the black water which represented a mean 
between the two streams on either side of the river. The bacterio¬ 
logical results confirmed unmistakably the conditions indicated by 
physical examination. The number of bacteria in the Illinois 
samples was very high; a lower number appeared in the Mississippi 
samples above Grafton, and the lowest in Missouri River at Fort 
Bellefontaine, while the samples taken from the intake tower showed 
a distinct mixture. The rivers were covered with ice during this 
period. Subsequent to this, but within the incubation period of 
t}^phoid fever, there was an enormous increase in the occurrence of 
the disease in St. Louis, 117 cases and 16 deaths occurring in March. 
In connection with this the witness recalled the fact that the Chicago 

O 

drainage canal had been opened January 17, and that the samples just 
discussed were collected from February 8 to 20 following. There was 
a heavy thaw in the Illinois River basin about February 10, which did 
not extend to the basins of the upper Mississippi and Missouri until 


TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. KAVOLD. 


43 


some time later, and therefore the Illinois River water largely pre¬ 
dominated in the Mississippi at St. Louis. From this the witness 
deduced the following conclusions: A great mass of filth had accumu¬ 
lated in the Chicago drainage canal previous to its opening. When 
the Bear Trap dam was lowered this material rushed down the valley 
and could be readily traced by the naked eye. At that time Illinois 
River was low, and the greater part of the foul mud was finally 
deposited on the bottom of the stream. As during the winter months 
the anaerobic bacteria were ineffective, the foul material remained 
unchanged, and when it was carried down into the Mississippi by the 
flood it must have been in a highly virulent condition. (835-840.) 

Pages 406-449, inclusive, of the record give the testimony of the 
witness in regard to typhoid at St. Louis. He stated that prior to 
1895 the St. Louis water intake was located at Bissells Point, about 
3 miles above Market street and just above the present Merchants 
Bridge across Mississippi River. About 1,000 feet above this intake 
Harlem Creek discharges into the Mississippi. At that time prob¬ 
ably about 10,000 people lived in its drainage area, the sewage from 
whom, as well as offal from a number of dairy stables, discharged 
into this creek. All this material during freshets was washed into 
the Mississippi and at times flowed directly into the Bissells Point 
intake. The result was an extended epidemic of typhoid fever in 
St. Louis, beginning in August, 1892, and continuing until February, 
1893. The water commissioner placed a dam across Harlem Creek 
500 yards back from Mississippi River and diverted the water down¬ 
stream to a point below the intake, with the result that the epidemic 
was ended. Typhoid fever, however, continued to be excessive in 
St. Louis until 1895, when the intake was removed to its present 
location at Chain of Rocks, after which there appeared to be a great 
improvement. 

The witness gave the number of cases of typhoid fever and deaths 
therefrom in St. Louis during each week of the period 1890 to 1900, 
inclusive, with the exception of 1892, 1893, and 1894. The figures 
appear on pages 419 to 432, inclusive, of the record. The monthly 
statement computed from these and other figures is reproduced in 
Table 1. 

The evidence given in Table 1, together with a statement of Mis¬ 
sissippi River gage heights at St. Louis during coincident periods, 
was introduced in diagrammatic form and designated Complain¬ 
ant's Exhibit No. 10. The diagram showed simply that as a whole 
low gage heights were accompanied by high typhoid morbidity in 
St. Louis. 

A special chart, designated Exhibit No. 10a, was then intro¬ 
duced into evidence and is herewith produced as PL I. It contains 
curves indicating the number of cases and deaths from typhoid lever 


44 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


in St. Louis during the year 1900, gage heights of Mississippi River 
at St. Louis and of Missouri River at Hermann, Mo., during the 
period, and the proportion of Mississippi River water entering the 
St. Louis waterworks intake at Chain of Rocks, determined accord¬ 
ing to the relative amounts of total solids found in daily samples of 
the water taken from Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine and from 
Mississippi River at Hartford and at the intake. This method of 
determination will be discussed in connection with the testimony of 
Professors Reiser and Teichmann. 

In discussing Exhibit 10a (PI. I) the witness called attention to 
the fact that in the early part of the year 1900 the proportion of 
Mississippi River water entering the intake increased, reaching 100 
per cent February 8, but falling rapidly to 12 per cent February 15. 
The period of incubation of typhoid fever varies from five or six 
days to three or four weeks. March 3, or twenty-three days after 
* February 8, the date at which 100 per cent of Mississippi River 
water entered the intake, there was an increase in the number of 
typhoid cases, which reached a maximum March 17. The witness 
further called attention to the fact that from January 27 to Feb¬ 
ruary 10 both Mississippi and Missouri rivers were falling, but that 
according to the gage height records at Peoria, Illinois River was 
high. These records show that there was a steady rise from Jan¬ 
uary 17 to 29, and the inference drawn from this was that a large 
percentage of Illinois River water was directed into the intake at 
Chain of Rocks and produced the typhoid above noted. March 24, 
25, 26, 27, and 28, 100 per cent of Mississippi River water was going 
into the intake. There was a fall to 62 per cent on March 29 and a 
rise on March 31 to 100 per cent. April 1 the proportion was 87 per 
cent; April 2, 50 per cent; April 3, 62 per cent; April 5, 56 per cent; 
April 6, 32 per cent; and April 7, 1 per cent, after which it rose 
rapidly. The proportion of Mississippi River water in the intake 
fell during the summer, fluctuating until August 7, when it reached 
6 per cent. By August 31 it had risen to 50 per cent. During all 
this time the number of typhoid cases in St. Louis increased with 
the increase in the proportion of Mississippi River water at the 
intake tower. This proportion fluctuated between 10 per cent Sep¬ 
tember 15 and 46 per cent September 22. After this there was a 
steady rise, until a percentage of 64 was reached October 4. It fell 
again October 6 to 27 per cent, rose on the 7th to 42, fell on the 9th 
to 24, and rose on the 10th to 26. From all this Doctor Ravold 
concluded that when the volume of the river is very great the per¬ 
centage of typhoid is very low, and that the typhoid increases with 
the increased percentage of Mississippi River water going into the 
intake. (432-447.) 

Doctor Ravold described in some detail the great typhoid epi- 


U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 194 PL. I 



River stages in feet 




























































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































TESTIMONY OF AMAND N. RAVOLD. 


45 


demies at Plymouth, Pa., and at Lowell and Lawrence, Mass,, as 
well as several which had taken place in Europe. (463-467, 739-752.) 

He then gave a record of the deaths from typhoid fever in repre¬ 
sentative foreign and American cities, the substance of which is 
included in Table 15. (753-755.) 


Table 15. Deaths from typhoid fever per 100,000 population in different cities, 1890- 

1896. 


Year. 

Filtered or upland water supplies. 

Polluted water supplies. 

Rotter¬ 

dam. 

Munich. 

Berlin. 

Vienna. 

Chicago. 

Pitts¬ 

burg. 

Louis¬ 

ville. 

St. Louis. 

1890. 

6 

8 

9 

9 

92 


88 

94 

1891. 

4 

7 

10 

G 

154 

100 

81 

30 

1892. 

6 

3 

8 

8 

106 

100 

72 

37 

1893. 

5 

15 

9 

7 

45 

111 

84 

103 

1894. 

5 

2 

4 

5 

31 

56 

72 

31 

1895. 

2 

3 

5 

6 

32 

77 

77 

19 

1890. 

12 

3 

5 

5 

46 

61 

45 

19 


Continuing, Doctor Ravold discussed a chart which was presented 
in evidence, showing the incidence of typhoid fever and its results in 
St. Louis during the decade 1890-1900. The chart emphasizes espe¬ 
cially the fact that from January, 1890, to September 28, 1894, during 
which time the water supply was taken from Bissells Point, where it 
was constantly contaminated by the waters of Harlem Creek, the cases 
of typhoid fever numbered 6,222 and the deaths 1,268. During the 
period from September 28, 1894, to December, 1900, when the supply 
was taken from the new intake at Chain of Rocks, the cases of typhoid 
fever numbered 2,490 and the deaths 562, indicating plainly a decrease 
in typhoid-fever rate of 125 per cent. This chart further showed that 
during the three years intervening since the opening of the Chicago 
drainage canal and the end of the year 1902 there had occurred 3,246 
cases of typhoid fever and 588 deaths, an increase since the opening 
of the canal of 68 per cent. 

The record for the three years previous to and the three years subse¬ 
quent to the opening of the Chicago drainage canal is as follows: 


Table 16. — Typhoid-fever cases and deaths at St. Louis, 1897-1902. 


Year. 

Cases. 

Deaths. 

Year. 

Cases. 

Deaths. 

1897 

433 

125 

1900. 

1,213 

168 

1898 

426 

95 

1901. 

1,101 

198 

1899 

948 

130 

1902. 

1,112 

222 





The witness endeavored to explain the increase in the number of 
cases occurring in 1899, previous to the opening of the Chicago drain¬ 
age canal, as due to the fact that in that year the water in Mississippi 
River was so low that it was feared that the lowest gates in the intake 
tower would not admit enough water to supply the city, so that a 
cofferdam was built about the intake and workmen were engaged to 



































































46 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


put a lower gate in the tower, the contention being that the unavoid¬ 
able stirring up of mud which accompanied this work was responsible 
for the increase in the typhoid-fever rate during that year. The wit¬ 
ness stated that in addition to this, extensive dredging was going on 
in Illinois River at Kampsville. (763-765.) 

With reference to the comparative reliability of morbidity and 
mortality statistics in determining the prevalence of typhoid fever, 
the witness expressed a preference for the mortality data and justified 
his conclusions as follows: 

When we go back over the statistics—that is, of the typhoid-fever cases and deaths— 
take the case of Plymouth, for instance; there were 1,104 cases and 114 deaths, 10.3 
per cent; in other words, 10 out of every 100 died; and my personal experience in this 
city, in hospitals, would make the per cent anywhere from 7 to 15, depending upon 
the stage of the disease in which the typhoid cases reached the hospital, while in my 
experience for twenty years as a practicing physician in this city, in the treatment of 
typhoid fever, the relation of deaths to cases would not be 1 to 15—that is, practising 
in the homes of the individuals sick. The reason for this is that we see the cases early 
and can do more for them at home, while in the hospitals the patient reaches there after 
he is seriously sick and the chances for treatment and recovery are not so good, so these 
figures on the chart, showing the relation of cases to deaths, are not comparable at all. 

Take any one of these years—any one you may please. We find that for 1892, for 
instance, we have 488 deaths and 3,624 cases recorded. There ought to be at least 
5,000 cases recorded by physicians—or take the lowest there, 1898, 95 deaths, which 
would mean 950 cases in the town. 

The witness concluded from this that physicians had not reported 
every case, but reported necessarily every death. (765-766.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The most of the cross-examination (837-949) consisted of a review 
of the statements already made by the witness, and only a few of the 
important facts not brought out during the direct examination will be 
mentioned here. 

The witness stated that the results of the examination of the water 
of Illinois River carried on during 1899 were not, in his opinion, a fair 
test of the conditions. 

A series of questions was then put to the witness, the purpose of 
which was apparently to show that, sedimentation and dilution being 
important factors in the disappearance of bacteria from water, the 
conditions along Illinois River were favorable for such disappearance. 
The witness conceded that there must be considerable sedimentation 
at numerous points along the river where the channel assumed the 
form of a basin, or where darns were built across the channel. He 
denied that there was any significant amount of sedimentation in the 
basin at or near Joliet, but conceded that at such places as La Salle, 
Peoria, Henry, Copperas Creek, Lagrange, Beardstown, and Kamps¬ 
ville considerable sedimentation occurred. The witness confessed 
ignorance concerning the amount of water normally contributed by 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 47 

each of the tributary streams of the Illinois basin, but admitted that 
there must be considerable dilution. It was then admitted that there 
are on Mississippi River and its tributaries entering above St. Louis 
ma ny other cities which discharge raw sewage into the streams, and 
that it would be impossible to determine whether typhoid bacilli occur¬ 
ring in the water at the St. Louis intake came from the Chicago drain¬ 
age canal or from the sewers of the cities mentioned. He further 
admitted that the drainage area of Illinois River was very small com¬ 
pared with that of the Missouri and upper Mississippi and stated that 
his conclusion as to the dangerous quality of water from Illinois River 
was based on the discovery not of organisms which actually produce 
disease, but rather of kindred species which are known to accompany 
them. 

Doctor Ravold admitted that there had not been in this country 
any authentic report of a water-borne typhoid epidemic in which the 
proved source of contamination was at a greater distance than about 
50 miles, but explained this by stating that when greater distances 
were involved the difficulty of such proof became insurmountable, 
inasmuch as there were always other towns in the drainage area which 
complicated the field of research. 

The witness expressed his opinion that no running stream on which 
towns or villages are situated is fit as a source of water for domestic 
use without purification, and in this connection many instances of 
typhoid epidemics were cited to support his statement. 

WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Dr. William C. Teichmann, a witness called in behalf of the com¬ 
plainant, testified that since April, 1893, he had been city chemist of 
St. Louis. He was graduated from the academic department of 
Washington University in 1875; in the fall of the same year entered 
the Polytechnic College of Brunswick, Germany, and there studied 
chemistry until the summer of 1879; in the fall of 1879 he entered the 
University of Berlin and continued the study of chemistry and other 
courses. During this period he made a specialty of water analysis 
under Prof. Eerdinand Tiemann. In 1881 he entered the University 
of Leipzig, and in 1882 the University of Munich, remaining there 
until 1885, when he graduated as a doctor of philosophy in chemistry 
and history. On returning to this country in 1885 he engaged in 
literary pursuits until 1890, when he again took up chemistry and 
served as private assistant to Charles O. Curtman, professor of chem¬ 
istry in the Missouri Medical College of St. Louis. In 1891 he became 
assistant instructor of chemistry in this college, retaining this position 
until 1896. As city chemist his duties had been the analysis of 


48 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

waters, disinfectants, medicines, and articles of food under the 
department of health and for the city institutions, together with 
toxicological work for the police department. (1148-1150.) 

Doctor Teichmann stated that he had charge of the chemical part 
of the entire investigation carried on by the complainant; that he 
had organized the system of collection of chemical samples and had 
directed as well as taken part in the chemical procedure. The chem¬ 
ical work was divided into several periods, which will be taken up in 
chronological order. (1151-1155.) 

The first period commenced August 23, 1899, and closed January 
22, 1900. The samples were not taken at regular intervals, but only 
at such times as the city harbor boat and the funds at the disposal of 
the witness permitted. The total number of samples collected during 
this period was 142, taken from the following points (641-643): 

Samples of water collected from August 23, 1899, to January 22, 1900. 

Number of 
samples. 


Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near intake tower of St. Louis water supply. 26 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near Missouri shore... 3 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near Illinois shore. 3 

St. Louis waterworks distributing well. 28 

Mississippi River at Madison Landing, between Chain of Rocks and mouth of 

Missouri River, near Missouri shore. 3 

Mississippi River at Madison Landing, near Illinois shore. 7 

Mouth of Missouri River. 10 

Mississippi River at points between Alton and mouth of Missouri River. 13 

Mississippi River at Clifton Terrace. 6 

Mississippi River at Elsah... 5 

Illinois River at points 1, 2, 3, and 5 miles above Grafton. 19 

Mississippi River at points 1, 2, 3, and 5 miles above mouth of Illinois River.. 19 


For about two mouths from the beginning of the work the samples 
were collected in demijohns held in the hand under the surface of the 
water. After this period collecting machines were devised and the 
water was taken at a point from 3 to 4 feet beneath the surface. The 
capacity of the bottles was one-half gallon. After the sample was 
taken a cloth was tied over the stopper and the neck of the bottle or 
demijohn, and a tag was attached to the bottle with sealing wax, the 
seal of the city chemist’s office being used. (644-645.) 

The second period extended from January 23 to October 11, 1900, 
the number of samples collected and analyzed during that period 
being 3,492. The samples were taken from the following points (1182- 
1183): 

Samples of water collected from January 23 to October 11, 1900. 

Number of 
samples. 


Lake Michigan. 11 

Chicago drainage canal above Bear Trap dam at Lockport. 219 

Desplaines River at Joliet. 219 

Illinois River 3 miles above Peoria.„,. 260 
















TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


49 


Illinois River 3 miles below Pekin. 

Illinois River at Pekin Bridge. 

Illinois River at Wesley. 

Illinois River 3 miles above Grafton. 

Mississippi River 2 miles above Grafton. 

Mississippi River 1 mile above Alton. 

Mississippi River opposite Hartford. 

Missouri River opposite Fort Bellefontaine. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near Missouri shore 
Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near Illinois shore. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, at intake tower.... 

St. Louis waterworks uptake. 

St. Louis waterworks outlet reservoir. 

Tap at city chemist’s office. 

Harbor boat and special samples. 

After the close of this period weekly samples were taken until 
November 30, 1900, at the following points (1183-1184): 

Samples of water collected from October 12 to November 30, 1900. 

Number of samples. 


Lake Michigan. 5 

Desplaines River at Lockport. 7 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lockport. 7 

Desplaines River above entrance of Chicago drainage canal. 7 

Desplaines River at Ninth Street Bridge, Lockport. 7 

Bear Trap dam, Chicago drainage canal. 7 

Desplaines River at Joliet. 7 

Illinois River 3 miles above Peoria. 7 

Illinois River 3 miles above Pekin. 7 

Illinois River 3 miles above Grafton. 9 

Mississippi River 2 miles above Grafton. 9 

Mississippi River 1 mile above Alton. 7 

Mississippi River at Hartford. 8 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 7 


Beginning with January 23 the samples were taken in duplicate and 
registered at the city chemist’s office, one of the duplicate samples 
being analyzed there, while the other was analyzed in the laboratory 
of Washington University under the supervision of Prof. Edward H. 
Keiser. The chemical samples were sent to St. Louis by common car¬ 
rier and were packed in ice. 

From October 12, 1900, to September 30, 1901, daily samples were 
collected from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks along the cross sec¬ 
tion previously defined. Daily samples were also taken from the out¬ 
let chamber of the St. Louis waterworks and from the tap at the city 
chemist’s office. (661-662.) 

The next period included the most thorough investigation and 
extended from October 1 to November 30, 1901. The work consisted 

/ jrr 194—07-1 


Number of 
samples. 

1 

1 

1 

... 265 

... 264 

... 260 
... 260 
... 261 
... 253 

246 
... 250 

... 260 
... 261 
... 156 

47 
































50 


POLLUTION OF RIVEKS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


principally of a daily collection of samples at the following points 
(1247-1249): 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Bridgeport. 

Drainage canal at Bridgeport. 

Drainage canal at Bear Trap dam, Lockport. 

Illinois and Michigan canal at Lockport. 

Desplaines River above Bear Trap dam, Lockport. 

Desplaines River at Ninth Street Bridge, Lockport. 

Desplaines River at Ruby Street Bridge, Joliet. 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s bridge, Joliet. 

Illinois River at La Salle. 

Illinois River at Peoria, 3 miles above railroad bridge. 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

Illinois River at Kingston, 8 miles below Pekin. 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

Mississippi River at Hartford. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, Illinois shore. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, midstream. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, waterworks intake. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, Missouri shore. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

St. Louis waterworks at outlet chamber. 

Tap in city chemist’s office, St. Louis. 

Triweekly samples were collected from Lake Michigan at Chicago 
during this period and semiweekly samples from South Branch of Chi¬ 
cago River, near the Chicago and Alton Railroad bridge; also from 
Illinois River at Wesley, 3 miles below Peoria. Four sets of samples 
were taken above and below each of the following points along Mis¬ 
souri River: Omaha, Nebr.; Kansas City, Jefferson City, Hermann, 
and St. Charles, Mo. Two samples were collected from Missouri River 
at Wathena, Kans., and two samples from Kaw River, near Argentine, 
Kans. (1249-1250.) 

During this period occasional cross-section samples were taken at 
such places as Pekin Bridge, Kingston, and Peoria, Illinois River; 
Joliet, Desplaines River; Alton, Chain of Rocks, and Hartford, Mis¬ 
sissippi River; and Fort Bellefontaine, Missouri River. (1250.) 

The last period of examination extended from December 1 , 1901, to 
July 1 , 1902, and represents the daily collection and analysis of sam¬ 
ples from Mississippi River at the intake tower, Illinois shore, and 
Missouri shore at Chain of Rocks, from the outlet chamber of the St. 
Louis waterworks, and from the tap in the city chemist’s office. 
Duplicate samples were sent to Professor Keiser for examination. 
(1289-1290.) 

The witness prefaced his discussion of his analytical results by a 
review of some figures by Lyman E. Cooley on the flow of Illinois 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 51 

ei and its tributaries, in order that there might be a proper under¬ 
standing of the effect of dilution. 

Mr. Cooley gives the low-water flows in various parts of the Illinois 
River basin as follows: Desplaines River above Lockport in 1887, 256 
cubic feet per minute; in 1879, 339 cubic feet per minute; Kankakee 
River, at Wilmington, during the twelve years from 1871 to 1883, 
25,200 cubic feet per minute; Kankakee River at mouth, September 
9, 1867, 27,377 cubic feet per minute; Fox River, at Ottawa, Septem¬ 
ber 17, 1867, 31,539 cubic feet per minute. On this date the Mazon 
was practically dry. In Illinois River, at Morris, from May 13 to 28, 
1887, the water was within 2 or 3 inches of the lowest stage since 1856, 
and it is doubtful if the amount exceeded 15,000 to 20,000 cubic feet 
per minute, or 250 to 350 cubic feet per second. At least 60 per cent 
of the water passing Morris in 1887 came from Lake Michigan by the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal, and probably one-half of the volume in 
ordinary low-water years comes from this source. A measurement 
made at La Salle by the canal authorities before the canal was deep¬ 
ened showed 37,900 cubic feet per minute, and doubtless Lake Mich¬ 
igan water has represented one-half of the volume passing in some 
recent low-water periods. 

In 1888 Illinois River at the Henry dam ran less than 500 cubic 
feet per second for nine days, and at Copperas Creek the same amount 
for twenty days. The water at Copperas Creek was at or below the 
same level in 1887 for one hundred and seventeen days, in 1886 for 
eighteen days, and in 1879 for forty-four days; at Henry in 1877 for 
thirty days, in 1875 for forty-seven days, and in 1871 apparently for a 
longer period. The volume in 1888 was less than that discharged 
through the canal at Chicago for the same period. How much leakage 
there might have been through the dams at this time is unknown. 
In 1867 or earlier a measurement was made at La Salle of 633 cubic 
feet per second; in 1879, 1,566 cubic feet; and in 1887, 1,685 cubic 
feet. Part of the water in the last two measurements is chargeable 
to Lake Michigan. 

It is probable that since the Bridgeport pumps were erected in 
1883 over half of the minimum discharge above Havana and one- 
third of the minimum below the Sangamon has come from Lake 
Michigan. For the purposes of calculation the normal low-water 
volume is taken at 600 cubic feet per second for the upper section of 
the river. In 1887 60 per cent of the flow at Morris came from the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal, or, in other words, the natural flow of the 
Illinois above that point was only 8,000 cubic feet per minute, or 134 
cubic feet per second. Let it be assumed for the purposes of calcu¬ 
lation that, independent of Chicago sewage, the natural low-water 
volume for the section of the river above Havana is 300 ° cubic feet 


a Probably a misprint in the record for 200, 



52 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


per second, and for the section below this point 800 cubic feet per 
second. This is the condition prior to the opening of the Chicago 
drainage canal. These figures show that the ratio of dilution of 
Chicago sewage in upper Illinois River prior to the opening of the 
drainage canal was 1:0.5, and in the lower division 1:2. (1163-1166.) 

The witness stated that he had no personal data for Illinois River 
previous to the opening of the drainage canal in 1900. He referred, 
however, to the following reports which contain such data (1174): 

Long, John H., Chemical investigations of the water supplies of Illinois: Rept. Illinois 
State Board of Health, pt. 1. 

Palmer, A. W., Chemical survey of the water supplies of Illinois. 

Long, John H., Advance notes of the sanitary investigation of Illinois River and its 
tributaries: Rept. Illinois State Board of Health, 1900. 

Jordan, E. O., Some observations upon the bacterial self-purification of streams: Jour. 
Experimental Medicine, vol. 5, December 15, 1900. 

Selected tables in these reports show, in the opinion of the witness— 

1. That prior to the opening of the Chicago drainage canal Illinois 
River was polluted by the effluent of the Illinois and Michigan Canal 
to such an extent as to make the entire river a conduit for dilute 
sewage. The dilution of sewage between Utica and the mouth of the 
river was 1 to 2 in times of drought. 

2. That while dilution, sedimentation, and oxidation are effective 
in reducing the quantity of characteristic sewage ingredients, they 
are not, in the case of Illinois River, sufficient to complete the process 
previous to the discharge of the river into the Mississippi. 

3. That the tributaries of Illinois River are much purer than the 
main stream. 

4. That during the interval between 1888 and 1899 there was a 
continual increase in the pollution of Illinois River while there was no 
corresponding increase in the pollution of its tributaries. 

5. That it is only necessary to consider the increase in the amount 
of water pumped into the Illinois and Michigan Canal from Chicago 
River and discharged therefrom into Desplaines and Illinois rivers, 
and to recall the enormous growth of population and industries in 
Chicago, to obtain the explanation of the gradual conversion of 
Illinois River into an open sewer. (1174-1176.) 

The witness then presented the results of his 'determinations of 
certain constituents in the water of Illinois and Mississippi rivers a 
short distance above Grafton, from September 6, 1899, to January 
17, 1900. (1177-1178.) 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


53 


Table 1 /. — Maximum, minimum, and average results of analyses of water from Mis¬ 
sissippi and Illinois rivers 3 miles above Grafton, September 6, 1899, to January 17, 
1900. 

[Parts per million.] 



Illinois River. 


Mississippi River. 


Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average. 

Residue on evaporation: 

Total. 

510 

330 

413 

450 

195 

285 

Dissolved. 

460 

240 

340 

280 

130 

205 

Albuminoid ammonia. 

.763 

.317 

.553 

.614 

.394 

. 503 

Free ammonia. 

. 440 

.091 

.215 

. 134 

. 030 

.069 

Nitrites. 

.020 

.003 

.012 

.008 

. 000 

.002 

Nitrates. 

1.1 

.4 

.8 

. 6 

. 2 

.3 

Oxygen consumed: 

Total. 

6 

3.1 

4.1 

11.4 

4.6 

6.9 

Dissolved. 

4.9 

2.3 

3.4 

8.9 

2.9 

5.6 

Chlorine. 

36 

15 

25 

9 ' 

4 

6 


The witness called attention to the excess in nitrites, free ammonia, 
and chlorine of Illinois River over those of the Mississippi. 

He then took up the discussion of analytical data procured from 
September 6 to December 4, 1899, concerning the character of water 
in Mississippi River between Grafton and Chain of Rocks, samples 
being taken from points specified on page 48. (1179-1180.) 

The results of the analyses of semiweekly samples taken at the 
intake from October 16, 1899, to January 22, 1900, were then pre¬ 
sented as shown in Table 18. (1180-1181.) 

Table 18 .— Maximum, minimum, and average results of analyses of semiweekly sam¬ 
ples from Mississippi River at St. Louis waterworks intake, October 16, 1899, to Janu¬ 
ary 22, 1900. 

[Parts per million.] 



Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average. 

"KYpp ammonia . 

0.138 

0.008 

0.0063(?) 

Wlt.rp.tps . 

.010 

.000 

.002 

Nitrates . 

.8 

.2 

.4 

Chlorine . 

27 

9 

17 






The witness noted the wide variability of the water reported in 
the above table and assigned as a reason the “ great fluctuations in 
the daily varying mixtures of Mississippi and Missouri river waters 
at the intake.” The following conclusions were then given from the 
results of the work in 1899 (1181-1182): 

1. The Illinois at its mouth was badly polluted. 

2. The Mississippi above the mouth of Illinois River was of better 

quality. 

3. The Mississippi between Grafton and St. Louis showed the effects 
of pollution from the Illinois, and on occasions when this water affected 
the intake at Chain of Rocks the St. Louis water supply became pol¬ 
luted. 

4. Missouri River was generally purer than the Illinois above Graf¬ 
ton and than the Mississippi below the confluence with the Illinois. 






















































54 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

The witness then proceeded to a discussion of the amount of Chi¬ 
cago sewage entering Illinois River from the Chicago drainage canal 
and the Illinois and Michigan canal. (1191-1196.) 

He then presented ten charts, which were admitted in evidence and 
marked for identification “ Complainant’s Exhibits 52 to 61,” inclu¬ 
sive. These charts contain in diagrammatic form the results of the 
determinations of nitrogen as free ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates, and 
of chlorine. The various records were grouped in different ways to 
illustrate the various points brought out by the witness, but as many of 
them constitute a duplication the charts will not be reproduced in 
this review. The results of the tests are set forth in Table 19. 

Table 19 .—Results of sanitary analyses of water from designated points, January to 

October, 1900. 

NITROGEN AS FREE AMMONIA. 


fParts per million.] 


Week 

begin¬ 

ning— 

Bear 

Trap 

dam, 

Lock- 

port. 

Des- 

plaines 

River 

at 

Joliet. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Avery- 

ville. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

above 

Alton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Mis¬ 
souri 
River 
at Fort 
Belle- 
fon- 
taine, 
Mo. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
Mis¬ 
souri 
shore. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
intake 
tower. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
Illinois 
shore. 

Jan. 

23 



2. 80 

1. 40 

0.105 

0.682 

0. 740 

0.140 


0. 120 


Jan. 

30 



2. 43 

1.68 

. 175 

1.052 

.865 

. 112 

.230 


Feb. 

6 



1.24 

1. 15 

. 130 

.830 

.695 

.290 

.280 


Feb. 

13 



.95 

.81 

. 181 

.507 

.475 

. 137 


. 175 


Feb. 

20 



1.27 

.69 

.280 

.610 

. 575 

. 137 


.280 


Feb. 

27 

1. 45 

3.02 

.92 

.53 

.260 

. 456 

.426 

. 101 


. 136 


Mar. 

6 

2. 77 

3. 48 

1.06 

.24 

. 175 

. 190 

.258 

. 190 


.201 


Mar. 

13 


1.91 

.55 

.33 

.393 

.366 

.383 

.305 


.312 


Mar. 

20 

1.80 

1.88 

.41 

.32 

.428 

.323 

.331 

.230 


.360 


Mar. 

27 

1.50 

1.71 

.50 

.28 

.362 

.352 

.312 

. 175 


.276 


Apr. 

3 

1.58 

2.30 

.50 

.31 

.378 

.315 

.298 

.098 


.288 


Apr. 

10 

1. 17 

2. 07 

.44 

.26 

. 280 

.281 

.297 

. 110 


.200 


Apr. 

17 

1.45 

2. 48 

.54 

.23 

. 160 

.206 

.200 

. 150 


. 118 


Apr. 

24 

1.10 

1.93 

.35 

.14 

. 160 

.137 

.130 

. 146 


. 125 


May 

1 

1.48 

2. 41 

. 14 

. 12 

.085 

. 115 

.105 

.200 


. 107 


May 

8 

1.80 

2. 65 

.28 

.13 

.086 

. 120 

. 100 

. 130 


.086 


May 

15 

1.18 

2. 40 

.33 

. 14 

.090 

. 106 

.098 

.143 


. 113 


May 

22 

1.55 

2. 27 

.28 

. 14 

.080 

.088 

.072 

.095 


.095 


May 

29 

1.23 

2. 68 

.27 

.07 

.045 

.075 

.061 

. 110 


.067 


June 

5 

1.24 

2.95 

.27 

.09 

.055 

.070 

.060 

.078 


.070 


June 

12 

1.60 

2.60 

.24 

.07 

.041 

.042 

.050 

.084 


. 065 


June 

19 

1.30 

2. 72 

.25 

.06 

.059 

.045 

.053 

.090 


.058 


June 

20 

1.53 

3.12 

.43 

.08 

.060 

.068 

.076 

. 115 


. 090 


July 

3 

1.97 

3. 40 

.23 

.06 

.047 

.070 

.067 

.140 


.085 


July 

10 

1.53 

2. 75 

.28 

.08 

. 058 

.062 

.077 

. 125 


.082 


July 

17 

1.47 

2. 70 

.44 

.09 

.072 

. 120 

. 100 

.190 


. 135 


July 

24 

1.67 

2.62 

.18 

.10 

. 110 

.135 

. 120 

.208 


.220 


July 

31 

1.30 

2.05 

.17 

. 10 

.111 

.110 

.110 

.150 


. 140 


Aug. 

7 

1.42 

2. 16 

.16 

.10 

. 106 

.091 

.093 

.110 


. 100 


Aug. 

14 

1.25 

2. 36 

.18 

. 10 

.096 

.081 

.087 

.070 


.0,5 


Aug. 

21 

1.61 

3. 70 

.22 

.08 

.090 

.100 

. 121 

. 138 


. 105 


Aug. 

28 

1. 42 

2.05 

. 19 

.08 

.079 

.082 

.068 

. 140 


. 115 


Sept. 

4 

1.47 

3. 05 

.15 

.07 

.072 

.078 

.068 

. 180 


. 125 


Sept. 

11 

2. 48 

5. 03 

. 17 

.05 

.068 

.078 

.088 

.095 


.080 


Sept. 

18 

2. 05 

6.21 

.21 

.12 

. 090 

.062 

.097 

. 120 


. 082 


Sept. 

25 

1.85 

3. 27 

.70 

.10 

.086 

.099 

.093 

. 130 


.085 


Oct. 

2 

1.20 

2.11 

1.35 

.10 

.107 

.120 

.120 

.170 


.120 





















































































































TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 55 


Table 19 .—Results of sanitary analyses of water from designated jmints, January to 

October, 1900 —Continued. 

NITROGEN AS NITRITES. 


Week 

begin¬ 

ning— 

Bear 

Trap 

dam, 

Lock- 

port. 

Des- 

plaines 

River 

at 

Joliet. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Avery- 

ville. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

I 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

above 

Alton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Mis¬ 
souri 
River 
at Fort 
Belle- 
fon- 
taine, 
Mo. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
Mis¬ 
souri 
shore. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
intake 
tower. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
Illinois 
shore. 

.Tn.ri- 23 



0.029 

0.031 

0.005 

0.021 

0.014 

0.007 

0.007 

0.006 

0.017 

T ;in 30 



.042 

.039 

.002 

.028 

.026 

.005 

.005 

.008 

.021 

Fp.h 6 



.035 

.021 

.007 

.020 

.019 

.008 

.008 

.012 

. 025 

Feb 13 



.032 

.019 

.006 

.015 

.014 

.008 

.008 

.013 

.012 

Feb. 20 



.038 

.023 

.012 

.021 

.019 

.010 

.010 

.014 

.018 

Fei). 27 


0.033 

.027 

.030 

.011 

.029 

.023 

.016 

.016 

.014 

.018 

Mar. 6 

0.048 

.050 

.033 

.021 

.010 

.022 

.019 

.015 

.015 

.016 

.015 

Mar. 13 

.065 

.061 

.019 

.018 

.010 

.019 

.014 

.017 

.017 

.017 

.017 

Mar. 20 

.043 

.048 

.020 

.019 

.008 

.020 

.019 

.015 

.015 

.014 

.017 

Mar. 27 

.085 

.079 

.016 

.015 

.037 

.017 

.018 

.015 

.015 

.014 

.019 

Apr. 3 

.098 

. 0S6 

.020 

.023 

.017 

.024 

.026 

.011 

.011 

.020 

.027 

Apr. 10 

.060 

.056 

.034 

.035 

.024 

.037 

.034 

.008 

.008 

.022 

.031 

Apr. 17 

.074 

.060 

.061 

.046 

.016 

.042 

.049 

.012 

.012 

.019 

.031 

Apr. 24 

.043 

.027 

.077 

.050 

.025 

.042 

.040 

.011 

.011 

.019 

.028 

May 1 

.019 

.026 

.072 

.040 

.004 

.022 

.022 

.011 

.011 

.010 

.017 

May 8 

.042 

.031 

. 122 

.039 

.008 

.027 

.028 

.010 

.010 

.013 

.015 

May 15 

.038 

.035 

.084 

.057 

.013 

.038 

.036 

.011 

.011 

.011 

.017 

May 22 

.009 

.017 

.082 

.061 

.008 

.031 

.027 

.005 

.006 

.010 

.019 

May 29 

.015 

.032 

.122 

. 056 

.004 

.014 

.013 

.004 

.005 

.008 

.009 

June 5 

.027 

.027 

. 133 

.016 

.004 

.006 

.005 

.003 

.004 

.005 

.005 

June 12 

.004 

.033 

. 147 

.015 

.005 

.007 

.005 

.004 

.005 

.005 

.005 

June 19 

.006 

.034 

.139 

.018 

.007 

.009 

.009 

.003 

.004 

.003 

.004 

June 26 

.006 

.036 

.137 

.046 

.007 

.030 

.026 

.002 

.003 

.002 

.002 

July 3 

.006 

.057 

.159 

. 022 

.006 

.016 

.013 

.002 

.003 

.003 

.004 

July 10 

.012 


. 158 

. 025 

.006 

.016 

.012 

.002 

.003 

.002 

. 005 

July 17 

.005 

.032 

.213 

.033 

.008 

.022 

.017 

.■003 

.003 

.003 

.008 

July 24 

.007 

.042 

.119 

.047 

.008 

.021 

.018 

.008 

.008 

.006 

. 015 

July 31 

.004 

.033 

.149 

.032 

.006 

.012 

.010 

. 005 

.004 

.004 

.008 

Aug. 7 

.009 

.049 

.159 

.030 

.004 

.014 

.012 

.006 

.006 

.004 

.001 

Aug. 14 

.023 

.061 

.206 

.043 

.006 

.021 

.017 

.006 

.006 

.004 

. 015 

Aug. 21 

.009 

.046 

.178 

.020 

.011 

.015 

.014 

.005 

.004 

.004 

.009 

Aug. 28 

.007 

.031 

. 142 

.016 

.003 

.009 

.008 

.004 

.004 

.003 

. 007 

Sept. 4 

.009 

.107 

.155 

.018 

.006 

.011 

.009 

.006 

.003 

.003 

.007 

Sept. 11 

.002 

.027 

.094 

.023 

.005 

.012 

.011 

.002 

.002 

.003 

.009 

Sept. 18 

.008 

.035 

.084 

.033 

.006 

.012 

.011 

.003 

.003 

.004 

.009 

Sept. 25 

.011 

.026 

. 106 

.043 

. 006 

.014 

.014 

.004 

.003 

.004 

.011 

Oct. 2 

.011 

.051 

. 145 

.042 

.008 

.019 

.017 

.008 

. 006 

.006 

.013 






































































;k 

n- 

23 

30 

0 

13 

20 

27 

G 

13 

20 

27 

3 

10 

17 

24 

1 

8 

15 

22 

29 

5 

12 

19 

20 

3 

10 

17 

24 

31 

7 

14 

21 

28 

4 

11 

18 

25 

2 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


suits of sanitary analyses of water from designated points, January to 


October, 1900— Continued. 


NITROGEN AS NITRATES. 


Res 

plaines 

River 

at 

Joliet. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Avery- 

ville. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

r 

[ Missis¬ 
sippi 
River 
above 
Alton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Mis¬ 
souri 
River 
at Fort 
Belle- 
fon- 
taine. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River 
at Chain 
of 

i Rocks, 
Mis¬ 
souri 
shore. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River 
at Chain 
of 

Rocks, 

intake 

tower. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River 
at Chain 
of 

Rocks, 

Illinois 

shore. 


2.95 

2.55 

0.50 

1.35 

1.50 

0.35 


0.00 



1.85 

1.85 

.00 

1.20 

1. 40 

.35 


.50 



1.55 

2.05 

.70 

1. 35 

1.15 

. 55 


.05 



1.25 

1.15 

.50 

.85 

.95 

. 45 


.80 



1.20 

1.05 

. 50 

1.00 

.95 

.35 


. 55 


0.25 

1.35 

1. 45 

.70 

.95 

1.10 

.00 


.70 


.30 

1.00 

.80 

.00 

.70 

. 75 

.80 


.80 


.50 

.82 

1.05 

.70 

1.05 

1.00 

1.35 


1. 10 


.00 

.95 

1.15 

.00 

1.10 

1.15 

1.10 


.90 


.25 

1.00 

1.00 

.20 

. 75 

.95 

.95 


.00 


.35 

1.15 

1.10 

.00 

1.05 

.90 

.35 


.55 


.30 

1.30 

1.05 

.80 

1. 15 

1.10 

.50 


.70 


. 40 

1.30 


.(X) 

1.05 

1.10 

.55 


.55 


.30 

.80 

.85 

.50 

.90 

.80 

.05 


.00 ' 


.20 

.00 

.05 

.20 

.05 

.50 

.00 


. 45 


.25 

.07 

.45 

.20 

.35 

.40 

.50 


.45 


.10 

.80 

.55 

.33 

.50 

. 44 

.50 


. 55 1 


.10 

.55 

.45 

.20 

.40 

. 35 

.35 


. 45 


.15 

.55 

.05 

.20 

.40 

.35 

.35 


.35 


.05 

.75 

.55 

.05 

.40 

.35 

.30 


.30 


.05 

.70 

.00 

.10 

.40 

.30 

.20 


.30 


0 

.75 

.05 

0 

.45 

.40 

.20 


.20 


0 

.40 

.45 

.15 

.40 

. 35 

.25 


.25 


0 

.30 

.40 

.05 

.30 

.20 

.20 


.20 


0 

.40 

.40 

.10 

.25 

.25 

.25 


.25 


0 

.50 

.40 

.15 

.30 

.30 

.20 


.25 


0 

.55 

.40 

.25 

.30 

.30 

.40 


. 40 


.05 

.50 

.35 

.20 

.33 

.25 

.30 


.35 


.08 

1.25 

.95 

.15 

. 45 

.35 

. 40 


. 45 


. 12 

1.30 

.80 

. 10 

.30 

.30 

.30 


. 40 


.13 

1.05 

.95 

.45 

.75 

.05 

.75 


. 45 


.19 

1.35 

1.15 

.45 

.80 

.75 

.90 


.75 


.24 

1.00 

1.00 

.55 

.80 

. 75 

.95 


.75 l 


.13 

1.35 

1.25 

.45 

.70 

.05 

.70 


.55 


.27 

1.75 

1.00 

.20 

.50 

.45 

.05 


.55 1 


.15 

1.50 

1.20 

.30 

.00 

.55 

.85 


.75 


.04 

1.70 

1.20 

V 

.40 

.05 

.50 

. 85 


.70 

1 


























































































































TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


57 


Table 19. Results of sanitary analyses of water from designated points , January to 

October, 1900 —Continued. 

CHLORINE. 


Week 

begin¬ 

ning— 

Bear 

Trap 

dam, 

Lock- 

port. 

Des¬ 

plaines 

River 

at 

Joliet. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Avery- 

ville. 

Illi¬ 

nois 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Graf¬ 

ton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Alton. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River 

at 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Mis- Missis- 
souri sippi 

River River at 
at Fort Chain of 
Belle- Rocks, 
fon- Mis- 

taine, souri 
Mo. shore. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
intake 
tower. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River at 
Chain of 
Rocks, 
Illinois 
shore. 

Jan. 23 



23 

18 

8 

12 

12 

28 

26 

23 

10 

Jan. 30 



21 

21 

9 

15 

14 

29 

25 

25 

12 

Feb. 6 



17 

14 

8 

12 

11 

22 

23 

16 

12 

Feb. 13 



12 

11 

6 

9 

s 

99 

97 

16 

8 

Feb. 20 



15 

10 

ti 

9 

Q 

9Q 

99 

Feb. 27 

15 

26 

12 

10 

6 

9 

8 

21 

21 

18 

IU 

8 

Mar. 6 

15 

32 

14 

7 

6 

7 

7 

12 

22 

10 

8 

Mar. 13 

19 

19 

8 

7 

5 

6 

6 

11 

11 

9 

6 

Mar. 20 

15 

19 

6 

6 

4 

7 

7 

12 

13 

8 

6 

Mar. 27 

18 

18 

8 

6 

5 

7 

7 

16 

15 

8 


Apr. 3 

18 

23 

8 

7 

5 

7 

7 

18 

18 

10 

7 

Apr. 10 

14 

22 

9 

7 

5 

7 

7 

11 

14 

9 


Apr. 17 

16 

27 

11 

8 

5 

7 

7 

12 

12 

9 

7 

Apr. 24 

13 

19 

11 

8 

4 

7 

7 

13 

12 

10 


May 1 

13 

19 

12 

9 

4 

8 

8 

14 

14 

10 


May 8 

13 

22 

15 

10 

4 

8 

7 

12 

13 

9 

7 

May 15 

11 

19 

17 

9 

4 

10 

9 

14 

12 

10 

9 

May 22 

12 

18 

14 

7 

4 

9 

9 

13 

12 

11 

8 

May 29 

11 

20 

11 

12 

4 

9 

7 

13 

12 

11 

8 

June 5 

13 

23 

16 

12 

4 

9 

8 

14 

12 

12 

9 

June 12 

15 

23 

16 

14 

5 

9 

8 

11 

11 

10 

10 

June 19 

13 

21 

20 

12 

5 

9 

9 

11 

11 

11 

9 

June 26 

12 

22 

19 

15 

5 

11 

10 

9 

12 

9 

9 

July 3 

17 

29 

20 

16 

6 

13 

11 

10 

10 

10 

9 

July 10 

15 

26 

22 

15 

7 

12 

11 

10 

10 

10 

9 

July 17 

13 

23 

29 

14 

5 

10 

9 

12 

12 

11 

9 

July 24 

15 

24 

23 

19 

3 

9 

9 

10 

10 

9 

8 

July 31 

14 

21 

23 

21 

5 

10 

10 

14 

11 

10 

9 

Aug. 7 

14 

20 

19 

19 

4 

12 

10 

■ 18 

13 

12 

9 

Aug. 14 

14 

22 

20 

19 

6 

12 

11 

20 

15 

13 

10 

Aug. 21 

17 

27 

20 

13 

3 

8 

8 

14 

13 

10 

7 

Aug. 28 

14 

20 

19 

15 

4 

10 

8 

23 

18 

17 

9 

Sept. 4 

12 

28 

19 

15 

4 

10 

10 

22 

22 

17 

10 

Sept. 11 

20 

42 

18 

16 

4 

10 

9 

17 

15' 

13 

9 

Sept. 18 

17 

55 

22 

15 

3 

8 

9 

19 

14 

13 

8 

Sept. 25 

15 

27 

25 

16 

3 

8 

6 

21 

18 

15 

6 

Oct. 2 

11 

20 

27 

16 

2 

6 

6 

13 

12 

9 

5 


In discussing the results set forth in Table 19 the witness stated 
that the determinations in samples taken from the Chicago drainage 
canal at Lockport, from Desplaines River at Joliet, and from Illinois 
River 3 miles above Peoria show that the water undergoes little 
change and practically no improvement in passing from the first to 
the third point and that the high free ammonia and nitrites which are 
found to persist in the Peoria water present unmistakable evidence 
that it has not yet reached its final process of purification. The wit¬ 
ness called attention to the alleged coincident fluctuations which take 
place at all three points. Whenever there is an increase in the pro¬ 
portion of any or all of the ingredients determined at Lockport there 
follows in due time a corresponding increase in the same ingredients 
at Joliet and Peoria. This was mentioned by the witness as proving 
absolutely that the character of the water at Peoria is governed by 
that of the drainage canal. (1204-1207.) 























































58 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Comparing the results of samples taken from Illinois River above 
Peoria and above Grafton, the witness stated that after the opening 
of the canal there was an increase in chlorine from an average of 21 
to 28 parts per million at Peoria and from 15 to 23 parts at Grafton, 
while the fluctuations in nitrites and free ammonia correspond. 
During the summer months the increased anaerobic action below 
Peoria causes divergence in the figures. (1207-1209.) 

The witness then testified with reference to the effect of Peoria sew¬ 
age on Illinois River. The total daily discharge from Peoria sewers, 
based on a poulation of 56,100 and 150 gallons of sewage per capita 
per day, would be 8,415,000 gallons, or 1,122,000 cubic feet. As at 
the time of testimony the sewerage system at this city had been 
extended to serve only 47 per cent of the population, the actual dis¬ 
charge based on the above factors would be 527,000 cubic feet per 
day. The minimum flow of Illinois River at Peoria, according to the 
measurements of Lyman E. Cooley, was, before the opening of the 
drainage canal, 72,000 cubic feet per minute; the discharge of the 
drainage canal is 250,000 cubic feet per minute, so that the minimum 
flow of Illinois River at Peoria after the opening of the canal was 
322,000 cubic feet per minute. The witness then used the value 
1,122,000 cubic feet per day, or 779 cubic feet per minute, to represent 
the flow of sewage from Peoria, notwithstanding the fact that he had 
testified that the real flow of sewage was only 47 per cent of this 
amount. Comparing this calculated sewage flow with the minimum 
flow of the river, he deduced a ratio of dilution 1 : 413. He then 
expressed his opinion that were the water of Illinois River as it came 
down to Peoria comparatively pure instead of being highly polluted, 
the effect of this dilution of Peoria sewage would be such that the 
river would purify itself after running 25 to 50 miles. Therefore the 
effect of Peoria sewage on Illinois River, so far as the St. Louis water 
supply is concerned, is negligible. (1211-1215.) 

The witness claimed that the figures show Illinois River above 
Grafton to be particularly unstable in comparison with the Missis¬ 
sippi above the mouth of the Illinois by reason of fermentative 
changes which were taking place. Along with these figures were 
given the relative gage heights in both streams, which supported the 
witness’s contention that the variations taking place in the waters of 
the two rivers are not due to any flood effects, because there were no 
significant relative differences in the stages of the rivers during the 
period of examination. During the latter part of February and the 
month of March there was a rise in both rivers, resulting in an increase 
in the free ammonia; but after the rivers had receded to ordinary 
stage the difference in the free ammonia practically disappeared. 
Throughout the year the nitrites, nitrates, and chlorine were much 
higher in the Illinois than in the Mississippi. (1209-1211.) 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


59 


Concerning the results of examination of water from Illinois River 
8 miles above Grafton and from Mississippi River above Grafton, 
above Alton, and at Hartford, the witness claimed that the evidence 
shows that the fluctuations in amounts of different ingredients in 
Illinois River samples are accompanied by similar fluctuations in 
samples from Mississippi River above Alton and at Hartford, while 
the samples of Mississippi River above Grafton show no such relation, 
demonstrating, in his opinion, that Illinois River pollution markedly 
affects Mississippi River at Alton and Hartford and excluding the 
possibility that such an effect might have arisen in the Mississippi 
above the mouth of the Illinois. (1215-1217.) 

Continuing, the witness discussed the resemblance appearing 
between the water from Missouri River at Fort Beliefontaine and that 
from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near the Missouri shore. 

He then took up the results of the examinations made at three 
points along the cross section of Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, 
and from a consideration of the total solids, chlorine, and nitrites 
advanced the idea that the water entering the intake tower in the 
middle of the river partakes of the character of that from either 
shore and is generally a definite mixture of both. It was pointed 
out that Missouri River water contains a higher proportion of total 
solids and chlorine than that from Mississippi or Illinois rivers, while 
the nitrites in the two latter streams are generally higher than in the 
former. When the Missouri is high and the Mississippi low the water 
from the former predominates in the intake tower, and when the Mis¬ 
sissippi is higher than the Missouri the reverse condition is main¬ 
tained. The witness further explained that the occurrence of a 
higher proportion of chlorine in the Missouri water is due to the influx 
of water from Kaw River, which drains extensive salt countries in 
Kansas, while the high proportion of total solids in the Missouri 
water is due to the character of the soil drained and the erosion 
caused therein, and he asserted without qualification that although 
Missouri River water contains a higher proportion of albuminoid 
ammonia it is not accompanied by high free ammonia and nitrites, 
proving that the organic matter is derived from vegetable rather than 
from animal sources. (1217-1225.) 

The witness then presented a series of tables designed to show the 
percentage of Missouri River and Mississippi River water entering the 
intake tower during the period from January 24 to October 10, 1900, 
based on the determinations of total solids in samples taken from 
Mississippi River at Hartford, the lowest sampling point above the 
mouth of Missouri River; from the Missouri at Fort Bellefontaine; and 
from the intake tower at the waterworks. These values being given, 
the percentages of water from each river at the intake are, according 
to the witness, accurately and easily calculated, as shown in Table 20. 
(1226-1240.) 


60 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 


It will be observed that when the value for total solids at the intake 
is intermediate between those at the other two points the percentages 
are calculated on the basis of an equal mixture of the two waters. 
When this value is greater or less than the other two, however, it is 
assumed that all the water comes from the river, showing respec¬ 
tively the greater or less content of total solids. 

Table 20. — Total solids in samples collected at Fort Beliefontaine, Hartford , and St. 
Louis waterworks intake, and percentages of Missouri River and Mississippi River 
water entering intake, January 24 to October 10, 1900. 


Total solids (parts per million). 


Percentage of wa¬ 
ter entering in¬ 
take from— 


Date. 

• 

Fort 

Belle- 

fontaine. 

Intake. 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Difference be¬ 
tween— 

Missouri 

River. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River. 

Fort 

Belle- 

fontaine 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Intake 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Jan. 24. 

800 

720 

500 

300 

220 

73 

27 

. 25. 

740 

670 

580 

160 

90 

50 

44 

2G. 

710 

685 

380 

390 

305 

78 

22 

27. 

710 

670 

390 

320 

280 

87 

13 

28.... 

690 

690 

460 

0 

230 

100 

0 

29. 

720 

570 

400 

320 

170 

53 

47 

30. 

700 

590 

340 

360 

250 

69 

31 

31. 

640 

580 

370 

•270 

210 

78 

22 

Feb. 2. 

535 

450 

330 

205 

120 

58 

42 

3. 

500 

450 

380 

120 

70 

58 

42 

4. 

540 

490 

410 

130 

80 

62 

38 

5. 

470 

460 

320 

150 

140 

93 

7 

7... . 

1,540 

400 

400 

1,140 

0 

0 

100 

9. 

1,500 

1,290 

1,230 

270 

60 

22 

78 

10. 

1,160 

1,430 

1,680 

520 

200 

38 

62 

12. 

1,050 

1,120 

1,200 

150 

80 

53 

47 

13. 

1,020 

1,220 

1,590 

570 

370 

65 

35 

14. 

770 

920 

1,430 

660 

510 

77 

23 

15. 

500 

600 

1,300 

800 

700 

88 

12 

16. 

500 

540 

2,325 

1,825 

1,785 

98 

2 

Mar. 4. 

690 

640 

450 

240 

190 

79 

21 

8. 

3,430 

2,940 

1,130 

2,300 

1,810 

79 

21 

9 . .. 

2,435 

1,900 

1,180 

1,255 

720 

57 

43 

10. 

2,520 

2,040 

1,060 

1,460 

980 

67 

33 

12. 

3,410 

2,340 

1,115 

2,295 

1,225 

53 

47 

13. 

3,940 

3,100 

1,420 

2,520 

1,680 

67 

33 

14. 

4,050 

3,180 

1,485 

2,325 

1,895 

81 

19 

15. 

4,0.50 

3,180 

1,310 

2,740 

1,870 

68 

32 

17. 

3,590 

2,680 

1,210 

2,290 

1,410 

62 

38 

18. 

3,430 

2,380 

1,240 

2,190 

1,140 

52 

48 

20. 

2,370 

1,600 

1,250 

1,120 

350 

31 

69 

21. 

2,010 

1,890 

1,420 

590 

470 

80 

20 

22. 

2,375 

1,205 

1,091 

1,284 

114 

9 

91 

23. 

1,575 

891 

806 

769 

85 

11 

89 

24. 

1,470 

678 

830 



0 

inn 

25. 

1,233 

728 

765 



n 

inn 

26. 

1,142 

640 

S31 



0 

inn 

27. 

1'363 

528 

670 



0 

inn 

28. 

l’ 142 

554 

647 



0 

inn 

29. 

'928 

627 

439 

489 

188 

38 

62 

31. 

1,010 

590 

600 



0 

i n.i 

Apr. 1 . 

1,180 

590 

510 

670 

80 

12 

88 

2. 

1,280 

870 

460 

840 

410 

50 

50 

3. 

1,400 

880 

480 

920 

400 

44 

56 

4. 

1,510 

860 

480 

1,030 

380 

37 

63 

5. 

1,540 

935 

455 

1,085 

480 

44 

56 

6. 

1,530 

1,200 

480 

1,050 

720 

68 

32 

7. 

1,570 

1,595 

630 



100 

n 

8. 

R785 

L220 

545 

1,240 

675 

55 

U 

45 

9. 

1,875 

1,235 

545 

1,330 

690 

52 

48 

10. 

1,735 

1,300 

480 

1,255 

820 

65 

35 

11. 

1,675 

1,150 

500 

1,175 

650 

55 

45 

12. 

1,860 

1,085 

455 

1,405 

630 

45 

55 

13. 

1,965 

1,240 

450 

1,515 

790 

52 

48 

14. 

2,955 

2,110 

415 

2,540 

1,695 | 

67 

33 








































































































TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN 


61 


Table 20— Total solids in samples collected at Fort Beliefontaine, Hartford, and St. 
Louis waterworks intake, and percentages of Missouri River jind Mississippi River 
water entering intake, January 24 to October 10, 1900— Continued. 


Date. 

Total solids (parts per million). 

Percentage of wa¬ 
ter entering in¬ 
take from— 

Fort 

Belle- 

fontaine. 

Intake. 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Differe 

twe 

Fort 

Belle- 

fontaine 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

nee be¬ 
en— 

Intake 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Missouri 

River. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River. 

Apr. 15. 

3,402 

3,542 

376 



100 

n 

10. 

l’861 

2,048 



100 

u 

n 

17. 

3,604 

1,842 

401 

3,203 

1,441 

45 

55 

18. 

2,395 

1,807 

424 

1,871 

1,383 

70 

30 

ID. 

2,410 

1,488 

410 

2,000 

1,078 

54 

46 

20... 

2,384 

1,309 

425 

1,959 

884 

45 

55 

21. 

2,300 

1,611 

458 

1,848 

1,153 

63 

37 

00 

4,374 

1,342 

520 

3,854 

822 

21 

79 

23. 

1,987 

1,657 

493 

1,494 

1,154 

78 

22 

24. 

1,755 

1,354 

615 

1,140 

739 

65 

35 

25. 

1,938 

1,488 

1,444 

494 

44 

9 

91 

26. 

1,574 

1,375 

469 

1,105 

906 

82 

18 

28. 

2,000 

1,455 

521 

1,479 

934 

63 

37 

29. 

1,730 

1,310 

440 

1,290 

870 

68 

32 

30. 

1,438 

1,240 

458 

980 

782 

80 

20 

May 1. 

1,655 

1,245 

455 

1,200 

790 

66 

34 

2. 

1,665 

1,260 

420 

1,245 

840 

67 

33 

3. 

1,845 

1,435 

445 

1,400 

990 

71 

29 

4. 

2,287 

1,535 

380 

1,887 

1,155 

61 

39 

5.*. 

2,600 

1,485 

415 

2,185 

1,070 

49 

51 

6. 

2,880 

1,685 

1,235 

1,645 

430 

26 

74 

7. 

2,110 

1,485 

510 

1,600 

955 

60 

40 

8. 

1,951 

1,449 

1,091 

860 

358 

42 

56 

9. 

1,913 

1,390 

545 

1,368 

845 

62 

38 

10. 

2,013 

1,300 

555 

1,458 

745 

51 

49 

11. 

1,696 

1,202 

491 

1,205 

717 

59 

41 

12. 

1,885 

1,258 

448 

1,437 

810 

56 

44 

13. 

2,198 

1,884 

453 

1,745 

1,431 

82 

18 

14... 

3,563 

2,147 

410 

3,163 

1,737 

55 

45 

15. 

3,010 

2,120 

420 

2,590 

1,700 

66 

34 

16. 

2,380 

1,960 

415 

1,965 

1,545 

79 

21 

17. 

2,495 

1,930 

450 

2,045 

1,480 

72 

28 

18. 

2,335 

2,050 

405 

2,430 

1,645 

68 

32 

19. 

2,615 

2,396 

545 

2,070 

1,851 

90 

10 

20. 

2,160 

1,945 

505 

1,655 

1,440 

87 

13 

21. 

2,340 

1,985 

490 

1,850 

1,495 

81 

19 

22. 

2,280 

2,033 

546 

1,734 

1,487 

86 

14 

23. 

2,358 

2,032 

565 

1,793 

1,467 

82 

18 

24. 

2,136 

2,007 

526 

1,610 

1,481 

83 

17 

25.:. 

2,204 

1,917 

575 

1,689 

1,402 

83 

17 

26. 

2,283 

1,834 

457 

1,826 

1,377 

75 

25 

27. 

2,120 

1,805 

502 

1,618 

1,303 

81 

19 

28. 

1,743 

1,918 

440 

1,303 

1,478 

100 

0 

29. 

2,280 

2,122 

420 

1,805 

1,702 

94 

6 

30. 

3,480 

2,255 

380 

2,090 

1,865 

89 

11 

31 

2,290 

2,290 

435 



100 

0 

June 1. 

2^200 

2,090 

410 

1,790 

1,680 

94 

6 

2. 

2,580 

2,005 

390 

2,190 

1,615 

74 

26 

3. 

2,280 

2,180 

335 

1,945 

1,845 

95 

5 

4 

2,170 

2,285 

430 

1,740 


100 

0 

5. 

2 ,455 

2 : 155 

460 

1 ,995 

1,695 

85 

15 

6. 

2,360 

2,105 

435 

1,925 

1,660 

86 

14 

7. 

2,355 

1,950 

410 

1,945 

1,540 

79 

21 

8. 

2,375 

1,825 

390 

1,985 

1,433 

72 

28 

9. 

2,405 

2,010 

380 

2,025 

1,630 

81 

19 

10. 

2,475 

1,935 

330 

2,145 

1,605 

75 

25 

11.'. 

1,950 

1,858 

340 

1,610 

1,515 

94 

6 

12 

2,015 

2,030 

425 



100 

0 

13. 

2 ,315 

2 ,215 

595 

1,720 

1,620 

94 

6 

14.. 

4,315 

3,955 

320 

3,995 

3,635 

91 

9 

15 

3,538 

3, 730 

375 



100 

0 

16 

2 ,562 

2,935 

335 



100 

0 

17 

2,326 

2,657 

324 



100 

0 

18. 

2 ,545 

2 ,412 

340 

2,205 

2,072 

94 

6 

19 

2,189 

2,280 

345 



100 

0 

20. 

2,179 

2,080 

335 

1,844 

1,670 

91 

9 

21. 

2,210 

2,100 

305 

1,905 

1,795 

94 

6 






































































































62 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 


Table 20. — Total solids in samples collected at Fort Bellefontaine, Hartford, and St. 
Louis waterworks intake, and percentages of Missouri River and Mississippi River 
water entering intake, January 24 to October 10, 1900 —Continued. 


Date. 

Total solids (parts per million). 

Percentage of wa¬ 
ter entering in¬ 
take from— 

Fort 

Belle¬ 

fontaine. 

Intake. 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Difference be¬ 
tween— 

Missouri 

River. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River. 

Fort 

Belle¬ 

fontaine 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Intake 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

J une 22. 

3,258 

3,055 

315 

2,943 

2,740 

93 

7 

23. 

3,683 

3,910 

363 



100 

0 

24. 

3’205 

4,184 

471 



100 

0 

25. 

3'506 

3,892 

471 



100 

0 

26. 

3' 330 

3,503 




100 

0 

27. 

3070 

3,156 

470 

2,700 

2,685 

99 

1 

28. 

3,325 

2,870 

455 

2,870 

2,415 

84 

16 

29. 

2,760 

2,805 

405 



100 

0 

30. 

2 , 686 

2,805 

405 



100 

0 

July 1. 

2 , 440 

2,770 

380 



100 

0 

2. 

2^515 

2 , 867 

345 



100 

0 

3. 

2015 

2,800 

325 



100 

0 

4. 

2 , 782 

2,873 

335 



100 

0 

5. 

3,945 

3,000 

330 

3,615 

2,660 

74 

26 

6 . 

3, 100 

4,175 

331 



100 

0 

7. 

3,125 

3’ 193 

364 



100 

0 

8. 

3 , 060 

3,234 

864 



100 

0 

9. 

3,435 

3,490 

343 



100 

0 

10. 

3 , 822 

3,400 

330 

3,492 

3,070 

88 

12 

11. 

2,690 

2,855 

320 



100 

0 

12. 

2,430 

2,655 

540 



100 

0 

13. 

2075 

2,415 

310 



100 

0 

14. 

1,970 

2,210 

290 



100 

0 

15. 

1,450 

2,100 

270 



100 

0 

16. 

2 , 433 

2,315 

280 

2,155 

2,135 

94 

6 

17. 

2.575 

2,405 

415 

2,160 

1,990 

92 

8 

18. 

2,360 

1,880 

310 

2,050 

1,570 

77 

23 

19. 

2,415 

2,300 

327 

2,088 

1,973 

95 

5 

20. 

2,293 

2,050 

610 

1,683 

1,440 

86 

14 

21. 

2,020 

1,800 

370 

1,650 

1,430 

87 

13 

22. 

1,895 

2,132 

380 



100 

0 

23. 

2 , 780 

2 , 760 

344 

2,436 

2,416 

99 

1 

24. 

3,885 

3,210 

310 

3,575 

2,900 

81 

19 

25 . 

4,580 

3,420 

335 

4,245 

3,090 

73 

27 

26 . 

3,791 

• 3,277 

408 

3,383 

2,869 

85 

15 

27 . 

3,157 

2,500 

480 

2,677 

2,020 

76 

24 

28 

2,730 

2,371 

450 

2,280 

1,921 

84 

16 

30. 

2,310 

1,995 

408 

1,902 

1,587 

83 

17 

31 . 

2,061 

1,972 

512 

1,549 

1,460 

94 

6 

Aug. 1 ... 

2,127 

1,795 

522 

1,605 

1,273 

79 

21 

9 

1,725 

1,807 

495 

1,230 

1,312 

100 

0 

3 . 

1,975 

1,693 

455 

1,520 

1,238 

82 

18 

4. 

1,812 

1,630 

382 

1,430 

1,248 

87 

13 

5. 

1,622 

1,339 

340 

1,282 

999 

78 

22 

6. 

1,530 

1,393 

315 

1,215 

1,078 

89 

11 

7. 

1,530 

1,045 

302 

1,228 

743 

61 

39 

8. 

1,294 

1,069 

305 

989 

764 

77 

23 

9. 

1,243 

1,008 

305 

937 

703 

75 

25 

10. 

1,226 

990 

289 

937 

701 

75 

25 

11 . 

1,220 

970 

240 

980 

730 

75 

25 

12. 

1,082 

935 

280 

802 

655 

81 

19 

13. 

1,060 

890 

292 

768 

589 

78 

22 

14. 

1,110 

904 

300 

810 

604 

75 

25 

15. 

1,000 

860 

270 

730 

590 

81 

19 

16. 

1,053 

860 

234 

730 

576 

75 

25 

17 . 

1,053 

860 

284 

769 

575 

67 

33 

18 . 

960 

890 

260 

700 

630 

90 

10 

19. 

1,343 

1,061 

283 

1,060 

778 

73 

27 

20. 

1.482 

1,305 

318 

1,164 

988 

85 

15 

21. 

1,785 

1,305 

405 

1,380 

900 

65 

35 

22. 

1,845 

1,525 

665 

1,180 

860 

73 

27 

23 . 

1,760 

1,445 

685 

1,075 

760 

71 

29 

24 . 

1,610 

1 , 470 

688 

922 

782 

85 

15 

25 . 

1,556 

1,320 

584 

972 

736 

76 

24 

26. 

1,556 

1,320 

584 

972 

736 

76 

24 

2i . 

1,410 

1,358 

538 

872 

820 

94 

6 

28. 

1,595 

1,422 

445 

1,1,50 

977 

85 

15 

29 . 

1,565 

1,379 

420 1 

1,145. 

951 

83 

17 























































































































TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


63 


Table 20.— Total solids in samples collected at Fort Beliefontaine, Hartford, and St. 
Louis waterworks intake, and percentages of Missouri river and Mississippi River 
water entering intake, January 24 to October 10, 1900 —Continued. 


Date. 

Total solids (parts per million) 

• 

Percentage of wa¬ 
ter entering in¬ 
take— 

Fort 

Belle- 

fontain=. 

Intake. 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Difference be¬ 
tween— 

Missouri 

River. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River. 

Fort 

Belle- 

fontaine 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Intake 

and 

Hart¬ 

ford. 

Aug. 30.. — 

1,881 

1,125 

375 

1,508 

750 

50 

50 

31. 

1,881 

1,125 

375 

1,506 

750 

50 

50 

Sept. 1. 

1,376 

1,315 

430 

946 

885 

94 

6 

2. 

1,460 

1,450 

420 

1,040 

1,030 

99 

1 

3. 

1,610 

1,414 

445 

1,165 

969 

82 

18 

5. 

1,930 

1,489 

365 

1,565 

1,124 

72 

28 

6. 

1,600 

1,545 

370 

1,230 

1,175 

96 

4 

8. 

1,635 

1,436 

354 

1,281 

1,082 

84 

16 

9. 

1,570 

1,308 

352 

1,218 

1,056 

87 

13 

10. 

1,430 

1,240 

340 

1,090 

900 

83 

17 

12. 

1,492 

1,033 

359 

1,143 

674 

60 

40 

13. 

1,305 

1,048 

340 

965 

708 

73 

27 

14. 

1,213 

931 

348 

865 

583 

67 

33 

15. 

1,110 

896 

298 

812 

598 

74 

26 

16. 

1,270 

900 

345 

945 

555 

60 

40 

17. 

1,186 

900 

330 

856 

570 

67 

33 

18. 

1,230 

853 

300 

930 

553 

60 

40 

19. 

1,210 

864 

340 

870 

524 

60 

40 

20. 

1,428 

970 

311 

1,117 

659 

56 

44 

21. 

2,200 

1,380 

311 

1,889 

1,069 

57 

43 

22. 

3,230 

1,900 

313 

2,917 

1,597 

54 

46 

23. 

2,985 

1,920 

327 

2,658 

1,593 

60 

40 

24. 

3,116 

1,980 

330 

2,786 

1,650 

59 

41 

25.. 

2,558 

1,836 

360 

2,198 

1,476 

67 

33 

26. 

2,365 

1,640 

320 

3,045 

1,320 

65 

35 

27. 

1,970 

1,500 

580 

1,390 

920 

66 

34 

28. 

1,870 

1,325 

350 

1,520 

975 

64 

36 

29. 

1,785 

1,330 

605 

1,180 

925 

68 

32 

30. 

1,840 

1,373 

400 

1,440 

973 

68 

32 

Oct- 1.. 

1,817 

1,357 

444 

1,403 

913 

65 

35 

9 . . . . 

1,990 

1,320 

365 

1,625 

965 

59 

41 

3 . 

2,960 

1,990 

448 

2,512 

1,542 

61 

39 

4 , 

2,920 

1,332 

455 

2,465 

877 

36 

64 

5 . 

2,677 

2,036 

394 

2,283 

1,642 

72 

28 

G . 

2,480 

1,895 

376 

2,104 

1,519 

72 

28 

7 . 

3,095 

1,937 

370 

2,725 

1,567 

58 

42 

8 . 

2,578 

1,878 

357 

2,221 

1,521 

68 

32 

9 . 

2,605 

2,095 

355 

2,250 

1,740 

77 

23 

10.•. 

2 , 807 

2,165 

370 

2,437 

1,791 

74 

26 


A chart designated as Complainant’s Exhibit No. 60, showing dia- 
grammatically the records of typhoid fever in St. Louis for 1895 to 
1899, inclusive, and for 1900 in connection with the percentage of 
Mississippi River water entering the intake from January 24 to Octo¬ 
ber 10, 1900, calculated from the total solids as described, was then 
discussed by the witness. He claimed that a great increase in the 
percentage of Mississippi River water entering the intake in 1900 
was followed in due time, a proper period of incubation being allowed, 
by an increase in the typhoid rate of the city. He further remarked 
that such increase was very much higher than the average for the 
five years previous. He called attention to the variations in the 
typhoid rate of 1900. (1240-1242.) 








































































64 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


According to these calculations it appears that on or about Feb¬ 
ruary 6 100 per cent of Mississippi River water entered the intake 
tower, followed by 90 per cent February 21. During the week begin¬ 
ning February 20 there was an increase in the number of cases re- 
ported, and it reached a maximum of 40 during the week ending 
March 13. There was a sharp decline after this and the rate remained 
comparatively low until the week ending September 4, when there 
was a considerable increase, continuing until a maximum of 102 cases 
was reached during the week ending October 2, after which there was 
another sharp decline. This latter increase was preceded by an 
increase in the proportion of Mississippi River water entering the 
intake, but the percentage was not at any time previous to the apex 
of the outbreak greater than 50, and this occurred only on two days— 
August 30 and 31. Inasmuch as the chart is not presented in this 
review, it is fair to state that immediately after the outbreak which 
reached its height March 13 and declined sharply thereafter, the 
rate remaining low for the remainder of the summer, a larger pro¬ 
portion of Mississippi River water entered the intake than at any 
other time during the investigation. March 15 the proportion of 
Mississippi water began to increase, reaching 100 per cent March 24 
and remaining practically at that point for a week. This was not, 
however, followed by any increase in typhoid, but, on the contrary, 
the rate declined and remained low during the subsequent heavy 
influx of Mississippi water between April 17 and 26. 

The witness then discussed the chart representing diagrammati- 
cally the comparison of samples of water from the intake tower with 
those taken from the reservoir after two days’ sedimentation and 
with those from the tap in the city chemist’s office. It was noted 
that, although the water had passed through the sedimentation 
reservoir and 85 per cent of its suspender], matter had been removed, 
its condition as it left the reservoir and was drawn from the tap was 
not greatly improved over its condition at the intake tower. A 
marked increase in the free ammonia and nitrites in the intake water 
was followed by similar increase in these ingredients at the two other 
points. Therefore, in the opinion of the witness, from the standpoint 
of actual purification the reservoir can not be said to be highly 
effective. 

Doctor Teichmann then called attention to an unusual rise in the 
proportion of free ammonia and nitrites in the early part of 1900, and 
stated that none of the analytical results on record, representing 
analyses made during twenty years previous, had shown so remark¬ 
able a quantity of free ammonia and nitrites at the intake tower, the 
reservoir, or the tap. Such an increase was marked all along Illinois 
River to its mouth and at the various sampling points along Missis¬ 
sippi River down to the intake tower. No corresponding increase 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


65 


occurred in the water of Mississippi River above the mouth of the 
Illinois nor in the Missouri, and all of it occurred directly after the 
opening of the drainage canal in January, 1900. The analyses of 
samples taken at the various points in 1899 previous to the opening 
of the canal and in 1900 after such opening being compared, the 
general result was shown to be that there were evidences of increased 
pollution all along the course, from Desplaines River at Lockport 
even down to the intake tower and the tap in the laboratory of the 
city chemist. (1242-1246.) 

The testimony of the witness was then directed to investigations 
subsequent to that of 1900. He stated that a number of samples 
were collected between October 12 and November 30, 1901, from 
points in Illinois River, but inasmuch as they were not collected 
regularly, the results were not included in the evidence. Samples 
were collected daily during these two months from Mississippi River 
along a cross section at Chain of Rocks, near the Missouri shore, at 
the intake tower, and near the Illinois shore. The results show that 
the water along the Illinois shore was at all times more polluted than 
that along the Missouri shore, while that at the intake was a mixture 
of the two, partaking of the nature of one side or the other according 
to the relative heights of Mississippi and Missouri rivers. (1246-1247.) 

The witness presented a series of charts which were admitted in 
evidence and marked for identification as Complainant’s Exhibits 
Nos. 62 to 70, inclusive. The charts contain statements in diagram¬ 
matic form of weekly average results of analyses of water during this 
period from the various sampling points mentioned, these averages 
being combined in a series intended to bring out more clearly the 
points which the witness considered important in establishing the 
case of the complainant. The results are included in Table 21. 

irr 194—07-5 


66 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Table 21. —Weekly average results of analyses of water at various points, October and 

November, 1901. 

FREE AMMONIA. 


Week ending— 


Sampling point. 

Oct. 4. 

Oct. 11. 

Oct. 18. 

Oct. 25. 

Nov. 1. 

Nov. 8. 

Nov. 15. 

Nov. 22. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at 
Bridgeport. 

9.70 

14.25 

11.72 

12.80 

10.60 

14.35 

16.55 

21.80 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lock- 
port. 

20.82 

17.54 

17.02 

15.25 

17.75 

22.12 

18.70 

22.48 

Chicago drainage canal at Bridgeport 

.95 

.97 

.79 

1.06 

1.18 

2.37 

.55 

.09 

Chicago drainage canal at Bear Trap 
dam. 

1.32 

1.33 

1.17 

1.34 

1.28 

1.24 

.95 

Ml 

Desplaines River above Lockport... 

.08 

.09 

.11 

.04 

.03 

.04 

.04 

.04 

Desplaines River at Ruby street, 
Joliet. 

3.275 

2.925 

. 2.487 

2.275 

2.475 

2.895 

2.895 

2.600 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s 
bridge, Joliet. 

3.38 

2.93 

2.48 

2.27 

2.45 

2.90 

2.93 

2.600 

Illinois River at La Salle. 


.475 

.462 

.437 

.625 

.750 

1. 125 

1.575 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

.018 

.232 

.280 

.283 

.225 

.350 

.510 

.940 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

.228 

.185 

.240 

.270 

.210 

260 

.510 

.780 

Illinois River at Kingston. 

295 

.390 

.385 

.615 

.350 

.430 

.720 

' .880 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

.355 

.435 

.364 

.410 

.390 

.270 

.550 

.660 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

.125 

. 125 

.140 

.095 

.085 

.70 

.065 

.170 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

.070 

.070 

.065 

.072 

.055 

.045 

.045 

.035 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

.070 

.073 

.077 

.075 

.055 

.045 

.045 

.045 

Mississippi River at Hartford. 

.063 

.070 

.080 

.080 

.055 

. 054 

.040 

.052 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaihe. 

.068 

.070 

.090 

.065 

.050 

.063 

.078 

.073 

Mississippi River at intake tower. 
Chain of Rocks. 

.077 

.067 

.085 


.042 

.060 

.068 

.064 

Outlet, St. Louis reservoir.. 

.060 

.055 

.062 

.045 

.035 

.035 

.044 

.059 

Tap in city chemist’s office, St. Louis. 

.057 

. 050 

.063 

.048 

.030 

.030 

.045 

.053 


NITROGEN AS NITRITES. 


Illinois and Michigan Canal at 
Bridgeport . 

0.0090 

0.0200 

0.0120 

0.0170 

0.0110 

0.0140 

0.0120 

0.0060 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lock- 
port. 

.0000 

.0000 

.0000 

.0012 

.0013 

. 0030 

.0020 

.0017 

Chicago drainage canal at Bridge¬ 
port. 

.0095 

.0130 

.0080 

.0120 

.0030 

.0030 

.00.50 

.0030 

Chicago drainage canal at Bear Trap 
dam. 

.0102 

..0102 

.0110 

.0070 

.0130 

.0120 

. 0090 

.0100 

Desplaines River above Lockport... 

.000 

.000 

.0005 

.000 

. 0005 

.0015 

.0010 

. 0000 

Desplaines River at Ruby street, 
Joliet... 

.070 

.069 

.071 

.075 

.063 

.056 

.031 

.022 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s 
bridge, Joliet. 

.0700 

.0691 

.0710 

.0750 

.0630 

.0561 

.0312 

.0221 

Illinois River at La Salle . 


.172 

. 156 

. 154 

. 116 

. 119 

.064 

.076 

.048 

.051 

Illinois River at Avervville. 

. 106 

.154 

.111 

.090 

.079 

.076 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

.105 

.117 

.099 

.089 

.091 

.073 

.066 

.054 

Illinois River at Kingston. 

.120 

.174 

.114 

.114 

.086 

.094 

.076 

.058 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

.130 

. 131 

.098 

.102 

.089 

.074 

.069 

.063 

Illinois River at Grafton.•_ 

.059 

.045 

.053 

.033 

.034 

.039 

.036 

.031 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

.0005 

.0003 

.0002 

.0002 

.0007 

.0005 

.0015 

. 0005 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

.012 

.006 

.005 

.002 

.0025 

.0025 

. 0035 

.0010 

Mississippi River at Hartford . 

.015 

.010 

.011 

.008 

.008 

.012 

.010 

.011 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

• .0010 

.0015 

.0015 

.0010 

.0035 

.0065 

. 0065 

.0040 

Mississippi River at intake tower, 
Chain of Rocks. 

.0020 

.0010 

.0015 

.0020 

. 0035 

.0050 

.0060 

.0035 

Outlet, St. Louis reservoir. 

.0020 

.0010 

.0015 

.0010 

.0030 

.0040 

. 0060 

. 0040 

Tap in city chemist’s office St. Louis. 

.0020 

.0015 

.0015 

.0010 

.0020 

.0020 

.0040 

.0030 
















































































TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 67 

Table 21. —Weekly average results of analyses of water at various 'points, October and 

N ovember, 1901 —Continued. 

NITROGEN AS NITRATES. 


Sampling point. 




Week ending— 




Oct. 4. 

Oct. 11. 

Oct. 18. 

Oct. 25. 

Nov. 1. 

Nov. 8. 

Nov. 15. Nov.22. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at 
Bridgeport. 

0.09 

0.15 

0.08 

0.07 

0.07 

0.20 

0.09 

0.15 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lock- 
port . 

.04 

.11 

.06 

.06 

.06 

.15 

.11 

.11 

Chicago drainage canal at Bridge¬ 
port. 

.14 

.11 

.07 

.05 

.14 

10 

.10 

.11 

Chicago drainage canal at Bear Trap 
darn. 

.06 

.09 

.03 

.04 

.07 

.14 

.07 

.09 

Desplaines River above Lockport.. 

.06 

.12 

.06 

.05 

.05 

.08 

.05 

.06 

Desplaines River at Ruby street, 
Joliet.. 

.29 

.24 

.25 

.21 

.20 

.21 

.15 

.15 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s 
bridge, Joliet. 

.29 

.24 

.25 

.22 

.20 

.22 

.15 

.16 

Illmois River at La Salle. 


2.00 

1.97 

1.97 

1. 90 

1.85 

1.35 

1.05 

1.55 

Illinois River at Avervville. 

1.82 

1.97 

2.15 

1.97 

1.95 

1.97 

1.80 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

1.71 

1.93 

2 03 

1.83 

1.80 

1.89 

1.70 

1.59 

Illinois River at Kingston. 

1.64 

1.89 

1.91 

1.85 

1. 71 

1.84 

1.74 

1.59 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

1.54 

1.56 

1.85 

1.73 

1.52 

1.78 

1.70 

1.57 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

1.76 

1.64 

1.70 

1.66 

1.80 

1.42 

1.34 

1.58 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

.08 

.12 

.10 

.10 

.10 

. 12 

.10 

.12 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

.40 

.30 

.20 

.16 

. 13 

.20 

.10 

.12 

Mississippi River at Hartford. 

.56 

.59 

.52 

. 55 

.58 

.61 

.45 

.48 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

.56 

.50 

.65 

.65 

.54 

.61 

.56 

.38 

Mississippi River at intake tower, 
Chain of Rocks. 

.43 

.48 

.47 

.50 

.53 

.60 

.53 

.34 

Outlet, St. Louis reservoir. 

.42 

.43 

.40 

.49 

.47 

.45 

.40 

.36 

Tap in city chemist’s office, St. Louis. 

.48 

.45 

.37 

'.47 

.50 

.45 

.43 

.35 


CHLORINE. 


Illinois and Michigan Canal at 
Bridgeport. 

80 

88 

104 

100 

85 

156 

115 

150 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lock- 
port. 

106 

158 

129 

126 

135 

170 

128 

147 

Chicago drainage canal at Bridge¬ 
port . 

12 

11 

10 

14 

10 

• * 21 

18 

21 

Chicago drainage canal at Bear Trap 
dam.. 

11 

12 

10 

13 

12 

11 

10 

10 

Desplaines River above Lockport... 

27 

23 

20 

16 

17 

19 

16 

15 

Desplaines River at Ruby street, 
Joliet. 

28 

27 

25 

22 

22 

23 

23 

21 

Desplaines River at Brandon’s 
bridge, Joliet. 

28 

28 

25 

21 

21 

22 

22 

21 

Illinois River at La Salle. 


22 

23 

20 

20 

20 

22 

20 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

22 

24 

23 

22 

21 

20 

21 

21 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

22 

24 

24 

23 

22 

21 

22 

21 

Illinois River at Kingston. 

23 

24 

24 

23 

21 

21 

21 

21 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

22 

22 

23 

22 

21 

20 

21 

20 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

25 

23 

22 

22 

22 

21 

20 

20 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

5 

6 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

9 

7 

6 

5 

5 

5 

5 

5 

Mississippi River at Hartford. 

10 

10 

9 

9 

9 

10 

10 

9 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

13 

16 

17 

20 

17 

24 

20 

18 

Mississippi River at intake tower, 
Chain of Rocks 

11 

14 

17 

17 

16 

19 


17 

Outlet, St. Louis reservoir. 

11 

14 

17 

16 

16 

18 

17 

16 

Tap in city chemist’s office, St. Louis. 

13 

12 

15 

15 

17 

16 

20 

17 


In discussing the above results the witness repeated much of his tes¬ 
timony given in connection with the presentation of the results of 
analyses for the previous year. His remarks consisted of a general 
indictment of the drainage canal and appear in the record, pages 1255- 
1276. Only a few facts in addition to those already mentioned were 
brought out. Among them were the following: 

That the sewage emptied into the old Illinois and Michigan Canal 
undergoes anaerobic action and when it is discharged into Desplaines 













































































68 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


River is in an advanced state of purification, so that the aerobic action 
which rapidly takes place after the effluent is discharged into the river 
is sufficient to complete the purification after a few miles of flow in the 
river bed. The sewage turned into the new drainage canal, on the 
other hand, reaches the discharge point at Desplaines River much more 
quickly and the fermentative changes have hardly commenced. 
Therefore it was argued by the witness that the discharge from the 
drainage canal is carried much farther down the river before its final 
purification takes place than that from the Illinois and Michigan 
Canal; and he pointed to the alleged fact that inasmuch as the great 
volumes of water discharged into Desplaines River from the drainage 
canal markedly increase the rate of flow the danger from the sewage 
is much accentuated thereby. 

That the water of Desplaines River above the point of entrance of 
Chicago drainage canal is potable. 

That the nitrites at Joliet are lower than at La Salle and Peoria, 
demonstrating, in the opinion of the witness, that the purification is 
by no means complete at Peoria. 

That the determinations, especially those of the nitrites, vary in 
samples taken from the stations along the lower reaches of the 
stream coincidently with variations in the upper-station samples, 
irrespective of the flow of the stream, demonstrating, in t lie opinion 
of the witness, the effect of Chicago sewage on the river water. 

That the variations in Illinois River water at Grafton are similar 
to and coincident with variations at Joliet. These variations do not, 
however, occur in the water from Mississippi River above Grafton, 
and the analyses show that the water from the latter point is far supe¬ 
rior to that from the former. 

That the excessive quantities of organic matter turned into Des¬ 
plaines River from the Chicago drainage canal make self-purification 
of the stream impossible. 

That the figures, in addition to showing increased pollution caused 
by the opening of the drainage canal in January, demonstrate also 
the effect of closing the canal during the following September. The 
effect produced on the sanitary quality of the water at Peoria and 
Grafton by the opening of the canal after this closing was exactly 
similar to but not as pronounced as the effect caused bv the original 

* o 

opening of the canal in January. 

That the figures show that the enormous pollution caused by the 
flushing out of Chicago River and the drainage canal during the period 
from January 17 to March 16, 1900, had a marked effect on the chem¬ 
ical character of the water of Mississippi River at Alton and Hartford. 

That the water in Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks near the 
Missouri shore is practically Missouri River water and is not influ¬ 
enced to any great extent by mixing with Mississippi River water. 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


69 

That the sanitary quality of Mississippi River water as shown by 
the cross-section samples at Chain of Rocks is distinctly inferior to 
that of the Missouri. 

That, although the sedimentation reservoirs connected with the 
St. Louis waterworks system effect a removal of 85 per cent of sus¬ 
pended matter and 44 per cent of bacteria, the specific ingredients 
denoting pollution are by no means sufficiently removed when the 
water reaches the consumer. 

The witness then presented the results of two series of analyses of 
water collected from the points along Missouri and Kaw [Kansas] 
rivers designated on page 50. These results are contained in Table 
22. The first series extended from November 13 to November 22, 
and the second series from November 24 to December 3. (1276-1286.) 

Table 22.— Results of analyses of water from Missouri and Kaw rivers at stated points, 1901. 


[Parts per million.] 


Sampling point. 

Total resi¬ 
due. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

Chlorine. 

Oxygen 

consumed. 


1 . 

2. 

1 . 

2. 

1 . 

2. 

1. 

2. 

1 . 

2. 

1 . 

2. 

Missouri River— 













Above Omaha. 

1,325 

1,290 

0.062 

0.056 

0.004 

0.001 

0.18 

0.18 

10.0 

11.0 

7.1 

0.6 

Below Omaha. 

1,074 

1,050 

.136 

.126 

.006 

.003 

. 16 

. 14 

11.5 

11.5 


6 2 

Above St. Joseph. 

1,225 

1,135 

.076 

.080 


.006 

.22 

.20 

12 5 

16.0 

9 0 

7.1 

Below St. Joseph. 

1,150 




.007 


.26 

7.0 

8 7 

Above KansasTity_ 

1,152 

1,070 

.070 

.116 

.005 

.004 

.026 

.24 

24.2 

16.0 

8.1 

6.2 

Below Kansas City.... 

1,290 

1,100 

.112 

.130 

.005 

.004 


.24 

18.0 

23.0 

8.5 

6.7 

Kaw River at Argentine.. 

687 

650 

.062 

.036 

.004 

.000 

. 100 

.04 

89.8 

109.0 

7.8 

5.9 

Missouri River— 













Above Jefferson City.. 

1,295 

1,055 

.094 

.136 

.005 

.008 

.360 

.28 

20.0 

23.0 

9.6 

6.7 

Below Jefferson City... 

1,315 

1,005 

.090 

.136 

.006 

.007 

.300 

.26 

21.0 

24.0 

7.4 

6.6 

Above Hermann. 

1,740 

950 

.090 

.106 

.005 

.005 

.360 

.28 

9.0 

19.0 

9.0 

6.5 

Below Hermann. 

1,155 

170 

.090 

. 126 

.005 

. 004 

.860 

.26 

18.5 


5.5 

6. 4 

Above St. Charles. 

1,101 

950 

.083 

.246 

.004 

.005 

.560 

.26 

18.5 

23.0 

9.1 

6.5 

Below St. Charles. 

1,072 

940 

.046 

.112 

.004 

.006 

.620 

.24 

19.0 

23.0 

9.5 

6.6 


The only interpretation which the witness could make of the data 
contained in the above table was as follows: The chemical analyses- 
show that the Missouri River water as analyzed from Omaha down 
to St.. Louis has a character of considerable stability. The results 
are fairly uniform along the route, with the exception that the high 
chlorines coming from Kaw River increase somewhat the amount of 
chlorine in the Missouri between Kansas City and St. Louis. (1287.) 

The witness then discussed the fifth period of investigation, begin¬ 
ning December 1, 1901, and continuing to July 1, 1902. Daily sam¬ 
ples were collected from Illinois River above Grafton until December 
18, 1901, and from Mississippi River a few miles above Grafton until 
December 14. With the exception of these samples taken above Graf¬ 
ton from the two rivers no samples were collected during this period 
above Chain of Rocks in Mississippi River. Three cross section sam¬ 
ples were taken at this point, as in previous periods of examination; 
a fourth was taken from the outlet of the sedimentation reservoir; and 


















































70 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


a fifth from the tap in the city chemist’s office. The general results 
of these investigations were that free ammonia and nitrites frequently 
rose to very high proportions in the samples from the Illinois shore. 
Such increases were always found to be the result of similar increases in 
the water of Illinois River above Grafton. A notable instance was dur¬ 
ing the second and third weeks of December, 1901, when an enormous 
rise in free ammonia occurred at Grafton, followed by a similar rise at 
Chain of Rocks, near the Illinois shore, and at the intake tower. This 
persisted during the early part of 1902. While the figures for Missouri 
River during this period were higher than usual for this stream, the 
samples collected at the intake showed considerably more pollution, 
and the only inference to be drawn is that the excess of organic matter 
came from the Illinois side of the river. A similar instance occurred 
during the latter part of March, 1902. Throughout this whole inves¬ 
tigation, ending July 1, 1902, and also the sixth period, beginning 
October 1, 1902, and ending January 1, 1903, the same relations were 
apparent. An increase in free ammonia and nitrites, which the wit¬ 
ness accepted as indicative of sewage pollution along the Illinois shore, 
was always reflected in samples taken at the intake tower, at the outlet 
of the sedimentation basins, and finally in the water taken from the 
tap at the city chemist’s office in St. Louis. It was the contention of 
the witness, in summing up the evidence presented by the chemical 
data gathered in the various periods, that the discharge of sewage 
into Desplaines River from the Chicago drainage canal is felt through¬ 
out Illinois River and down the Mississippi. The variations in the 
character of the water in the canal at Lockport are followed by similar 
variations at Peoria and these by similar ones at Grafton, the wave 
progressing onward even to the water taps of consumers in St. Louis. 
(1289-1307.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The cross-examiner sought to show that the witness was not justi¬ 
fied in selecting records of the lowest flow of Illinois River as a basis for 
his determination ol the degree of dilution of Chicago sewage, contend¬ 
ing that the mean stages of water would serve as a fair basis. To this 
the witness replied that he did so to calculate the lowest possible 
amount of dilution, although he admitted that such a condition was 
uncommon and nonrepresentative and that the mean stage of water 
could readily be calculated. He stated that he had sought for the 
lowest stages in the report of Lyman E. Cooley for 1890 and in those 
of Jacob A. Harman in various State board of health publications up 
to 1899, the avowed purpose being to show the worst possible pollution 
recorded on the charts presented in evidence. (1380-1382.) 

The cross-examiner then sought to show that the figures given by 
the witness concerning the minimum flow of the upper section of the 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICIIMANN. 


71 


Illinois drainage basin (1163-1166) at 600 cubic feet per second were 
too low, inasmuch as by his own statement the lowest recorded flow of 
Desplaines River was 256 cubic feet per minute, of Kankakee River 
25,200 feet per minute, of Fox River 31,339 feet per minute, and of 
the Illinois and Michigan Canal at La Salle 37,900 feet per minute, 
the combined flow of which would represent a far greater amount of 
water than that accepted by the witness as a basis for his calculations 
of sewage dilution. The witness was unable to reply to this presen¬ 
tation, but fell back on the reports of Messrs. Cooley and Harman, 
which he quoted in his testimony. (1382-1386.) 

The cross-examiner sought to show that the calculation made by 
the witness with reference to the proportion of sewage per capita at 
Peoria discharged in Illinois River (1212-1213) was unfair, inasmuch 
as Peoria is a great manufacturing center, containing distilleries, glu¬ 
cose works, etc., from which a disproportionate amount of organic 
matter is discharged into the stream, and therefore the assumption 
of a sewage discharge equivalent to the consumption of water was 
unwarranted and the basis of calculation should be raised. This was 
denied by the witness, who contended that the sewage conditions 
were representative of the majority of other cities. (1402-1405.) 

The cross-examiner then took up the statement made by the witness 
(1213) that if the water of Illinois River came down to Peoria in 
a potable condition the polluting effect of Peoria sewage on the 
stream would be removed after running a distance of 25 to 50 miles 
below the city, and, presenting a supposititious case based on the spec¬ 
ified premises, asked the witness to confirm or deny his former state¬ 
ment. Doctor Teiclimann refused to make a direct reply, but quali¬ 
fied his statement made in direct testimony b}^ asserting that chem¬ 
ical evidences of the pollution would be removed in that distance. 
His final reply to the question was as follows: u I said chemically; yes. 
I didn’t say that at the time, but it was understood, and if I had been 
asked the question I would have said so at that time, that a chemical 
examination of the samples of water taken at a point below Peoria, 
and taking into consideration the general conditions of the river, I 
would say that that sewage disappears from the channel—that is, the 
chemical result would not show its presence.” (1405-1410.) 

The cross-examiner drew from the witness the following informa¬ 
tion: The number of wells in St. Louis in 1899 was from 3,500 to 4,000 
and the number of drain-water cisterns used was about 3,000, making 
in all about 7,000 private water supplies to be used in the city. In 
1900 there were 1,160 cases of typhoid reported. Three-fourths 
of the patients had used water from the city supply only, while the 
remainder admitted that they drank well water, but frequently would 
use the city supply in addition. (1436-1437.) 


72 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The cross-examiner endeavored to establish the allegation that the 
apparent increase in the number of typhoid cases in St. Louis was not 
due to greater incidence of the disease, but to more faithful reporting 
to the health department on the part of the practicing physicians in 
the city. He procured an admission from the witness that in 1900 a 
special letter was sent out to all physicians in the city calling attention 
to the fact that the law required them, under penalty, to report all 
cases of typhoid fever occurring in their practice and that for the seven 
years previous no special effort had been made to obtain compliance 
with this law. The witness stated that there had, nevertheless, 
always been general discussion in connection with the potability of the 
water supply, and warnings had frequently been issued by the health 
department against the use of the city water. (1439-1442.) 

The witness then admitted that during the five years previous to 
1900 the St. Louis water was not potable and required boiling or filtra¬ 
tion to make it safe. He asserted, however, that it had become worse 
after the opening of the canal, and stated his belief that the pollution 
of the St. Louis supply previous to the opening of the canal was 
derived from Illinois River and that from a chemical standpoint the 
water from Missouri River had been, and was at the time of the testi¬ 
mony, in a potable condition. (1446-1448.) 

On being questioned with reference to the distance which a stream 
must flow in order to purify itself, the witness stated that it could 
not be given offhand, but would require careful consideration of the 
local conditions, the volume of water, its character, the character 
of the sewage discharged, etc. He admitted that he did not know 
whether the sewage of St. Paul and Minneapolis was purified by flow¬ 
ing in Mississippi River from these two cities to St. Louis, and con¬ 
fessed the same lack of information concerning the sewage from 
McGregor, Prairie du Chien, Dubuque, Clinton, Quincy, Burlington, 
Keokuk, Rock Island, Moline, and Davenport. (1460-1464.) 

The witness then modified his former statement concerning the 
potability of the Mississippi River water above the mouth of Illinois 
River, and stated that the water is not potable except during the 
summer months, when the purification processes are greatly acceler¬ 
ated. (1465-1467.) 

The cross-examiner continued along this line for the apparent pur¬ 
pose of determining how the witness reconciled his statement concern¬ 
ing the potability of the Mississippi River water above Grafton, which 
receives the sewage of the above-named cities, with his opinion con¬ 
cerning the unpotability of the Illinois River water above Grafton. 
The contention of the cross-examiner was that if the witness had 
determined that the Mississippi water above Grafton was potable then 
the irresistible conclusion would be that sewage from the above-named 
cities must have been purified by the time it reached Grafton, and 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM C. TEICHMANN. 


73 


such being the case the theory that polluted water becomes purified by 
running a certain distance must be correct. 

I he witness refused to make a direct reply, basing his refusal on his 
ignorance ol the conditions on the drainage area without a knowledge 
of which he could not be expected to give an opinion. For the same 
reason he refused to give a direct reply to the question whether or not 
there were any conceivable conditions on the Mississippi drainage- 
area above Grafton which would change his opinion of the potability 
of the water, it being assumed that his chemical data remained un¬ 
changed. Whatever the conditions above might be, he would draw 
only one conclusion from his data—namely, that the water was pota¬ 
ble during the summer months. In short, he based his conclusion 
solely on chemical data. Shortly afterwards, in response to similar 
questions, he gave an opinion diametrically opposite to that expressed 
in the preceding paragraph, viz: “Practically throughout the year it 
is permissible as a good drinking water.” He added that if he were 
placed in charge of the water supply of Grafton he would advise the 
use of raw water from Mississippi River above the city. Being further 
pressed, he admitted that there were some authorities who would dis¬ 
agree with him on the matter, and then asserted that he supported the 
views-of this very class of authorities. The witness then st ated that he 
would render an opinion concerning the potability of the water from 
chemical evidence, but would supplement it in a measure by bac¬ 
teriological evidence. He then professed ignorance of any instances 
in which a water appeared to be unpolluted from chemical evidence 
but polluted from bacteriological, evidence. He stated that if it 
should exist the water must be considered unpotable. (1467-1479.) 

The witness then testified as follows: 

I am testifying to the facts as I found them at the mouth of the Illinois River. What 
the conditions are hundreds of miles above the mouth of the Illinois on the Mississippi 
I am not considering. I only ascertained the character of the Mississippi River water 
3 and 5 miles above the mouth of the Illinois. “ Is it good or bad? ” And I find it pota¬ 
ble, and I have so expressed it. What it might have been miles and miles above the 
mouth of the Illinois is immaterial, to my mind, in considering the questions involved 
in the investigation that I conducted these years. (1482.) 

The attention of the witness was called to the fact that Doctor 
Ravold had declared the water of the Mississippi above Grafton unfit 
for domestic purposes, and after much circumlocution he stated that 
he differed with Doctor Ravold and held to his opinion. (1485-1490.) 

The cross-examination is continued in the record to page 1697. 
Although many different points were taken up, no important new facts 
were enunciated. The greater part of the cross-examination con¬ 
sisted of questions apparently designed to test the qualifications of the 
witness as.an expert on the interpretation of water analyses and the 
general subject of stream pollution, and it would seem to the impar¬ 
tial reader that the credibility of the witness suffered. 


74 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


EDWARD H. REISER. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Edward H. Keiser, a witness called in behalf of the complainant, in 
qualifying as an expert, made the following statements: Since 1899 
he had been professor of chemistry in Washington University, St. 
Louis; for fourteen years previous he had occupied the same position 
in Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania; for eighteen months previous to 
that was instructor in chemistry in Johns Hopkins University, Balti¬ 
more. He was graduated from Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania, 
in 1880, with the degree of bachelor of science, and in 1881 took the 
degree of master of science; in 1884 received the degree of doctor of 
philosophy at Johns Hopkins University. In the summer of 1884 he 
studied at Freiburg, Saxony; in 1887 at Gottingen, Germany; and 
in 1894 at Heidelberg. He had given his entire professional life to 
chemistry and had been called on during his career to analyze many 
samples of water. (968-971.) 

The witness stated that he had commenced his work for the city 
of St. Louis January 24, 1900, and continued the analysis of samples 
collected daily until October 11, following. A second series of analy¬ 
ses was conducted extending from October 1 to November 30, 190P 
The following determinations were made in the analyses carried on by 
Professor Keiser: Total solids, free ammonia, albuminoid ammonia, 
total ammonia, oxygen consumed, nitrites, nitrates, and chlorine. 
For the first five determinations mentioned the water was used in an 
unfiltered state; the other three were made with filtered water. The 
methods used in making these determinations were described and 
the witness stated that they were, in general, those recommended by 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science. (974-980.) 

Samples from the following points were analyzed in the series of 
1900: Reservoir of St. Louis water-supply system at Chain of Rocks; 
along the cross section defined by Mississippi River intake tower; 
Illinois shore, and Missouri shore; Missouri River at Fort Bellefon- 
taine; Mississippi River at Hartford, above Alton, and above the 
mouth of Illinois River; Illinois River 3 miles above Grafton and 2 
miles above Peoria; and Desplaines River at Joliet and Lockport. 
(981.) 

The witness stated that of the determinations made he regarded 
the nitrites and free ammonia as of chief importance, for the reason 
that— 

The presence of measurable quantities of nitrites in drinking water is often regarded 
as a sure sign of contamination, and a chemist finding a measurable quantity of nitrites 
in water would condemn that water as unsafe for drinking purposes; and so free ammo¬ 
nia likewise is of great importance for the reason that the first product produced by 
bacteria in decomposing sewage is ammonia. We always find a quantity of free 
ammonia in sewage; so the chemist lays special stress on these two constituents, 
namely, nitrites and free ammonia. (982.) 


TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 


75 

The witness then introduced data concerning the character of the 
water in the reservoir at Chain of Kocks, reciting in his testimony 
the weekly and monthly averages of the daily determinations made, 
lie mentioned only the determinations of albuminoid ammonia, free 
ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates, and it does not appear from the record 
that he presented tables or gave any other data. The results given 
are recorded in Table 23. (985-1007.) 


Table 23.- 


- Weekly and monthly averages of daily analyses of water from reservoir 

St. Louis waterworks. 

[Parts per million.] 


Date. 

Albuminoid 

monia. 

am- 

Free ammonia. 

Nitrites. 


Weekly. 

Monthly. 

Weekly. 

Monthly. 

Weekly. 

Monthly. 

1900. 

January 24-31. 

0.214 


0.214 

0.1112 
. 2265 
.2345 
. 1689 
.2094 
. 1357 
.1643 
' ' .1980 
.2848 
.2690 
.2234 
.1030 
. 0703 
.0417 
.0254 


0. 1112 

0. 0044 
. 0074 
.0080 
.0140 
.0240 
’ . 0100 
.0080 
.‘0120 
.0130 
.0140 
.0170 
.0260 
.0140 | 
.0097 
.0046 
.0049 
.0031 
. 0040 
.0039 
.0027 
.0020 
.0017 
.0013 

1 .0021 
l .0017 
0004 

0.0044 

February 1-7. 

. 199 



February 8-14. 

.285 ' 


.271 




February 15-21. 

.259 

» 

► 

.2098 

.0133 

February 22-28. 

.344 






March 1-7. 

.233 






March 8-14__ 

.325 


.410 




March 15-21. 

. 582 

- 

» 

.1890 

. 0107 

March 22-31. 

. .501 






April 1-7. 

.264 






April 8-14. 

.387 


.313 




April 15-21. 

. 248 


» 

. 1664 

. 0180 

April 22-30. 

. 352 






May 1-7. 

. 279 






May 8-14. 

.285 


.261 


. 0377 


May 15-21. 

.224 

► 

. 0345 
.0491 
. 0234 

► 

. 0055 

May 22-31. 

.257 





■ 

June 1-7. 

. 155 





r 

June 8-14. 

. 172 


.182 

. 0066 


.0130 


June 15-21. 

. 161 

► 

.0100 

- 

. 0032 

J une 22-30. 

.240 



.0120 




July 1-7. 

.219 



.0117 




July 8-14. 

. 192 


.234 

.0228 


.0199 

• .0017 ■ 

July 15-21. 

.249 

► 

. 0265 

► 

J uly 22-31. 

.275 



. 0186 




August 1-7. 

.304 



. 0320 




August 8-14. 

.233 


.257 

.0220 


.0276 

.0018 

0035 

• . 0021 ■ 

August 15-21. 

.202 


. 0223 

► 

August 22-31. 

. 289 



. 0343 



.0025 

.0015 

0011 


September 1-7. 

.276 



. 0208 



| 

September 8-14. 

.238 


.237 

.335 

.0348 


.0250 

.0316 

• .0013 • 

.0021 

September 15-21. 

September 22-30. 

October 1-10. 

.225 

.210 

.335 

• 

. 0263 
. 0283 
. 0316 

• 

.0016 
.0010 
. 0021 

1901. 

October 1-7. 

.885 


. 1290 


. 0037 

October 8-14. 

.677 



.0510 



. 0029 


October 15-21. 

. 523 


.673 

.046 


.074 

.0050 

• .0059 ■ 

October 22-28. 

.727 

► 


• 

.0048 

October 28-No vem- 
ber 4. 

.553 



.071 



.0131 


November 5-11. 

November 12-18. 

November 19-25. 

November 25-30. 

.493 
.794 
. 536 
.420 

* 

.559 

.070 
. 086 
.072 
.071 

1 

► 

.074" 

. 0131 
.0143 
. 0130 
.0110 

• . 0130 < 


Nitrates. 


Weekly. Monthly, 


0.50 

.52 

.49 

.57 

.78 

.61 

.91 

.89 

.67 

.51 

.67 

.53 

.54 

.51 

.38 

.32 

.35 

.39 

.37 

.43 

.43 

.51 

.49 

.34 

.51 

.48 

.27 

.22 

.42 

.39 

.36 

.36 

.38 

.53 


.60 

.29 

.21 

.43 

.38 

.27 

.25 

.12 

.12 


0.50- 

.59 

.77 

.56 

.39 

.41 

.46 

.35 

.37 

.53 

.38 

.23, 


In discussing the results set forth in the above table; Professor 
Keiser stated that early in February, 1900, the quantity of nitrites 
and free ammonia in the reservoir water began to increase very mate¬ 
rially, and the water became highly polluted. This was also noted in 
the case of the other determinations. Beginning with the first part 
of the month of May, there was a gradual decrease in these constitu¬ 
ents, and during the summer months—indeed, up to the end of the 




































































































































76 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 


period of investigation—the proportion thereof remained low. The 
results for October and November, 1901, showed considerable increase 
over those of the previous year. These results, in the opinion of the 
witness, indicated that an enormous amount of polluting matter was 
coming down Mississippi River and that the water could not be classed 
as potable, owing to the large amount of decomposing organic matter 
in it. (1008-1009.) 

The witness then presented data on the free ammonia, nitrites, and 
nitrates in daily samples of Mississippi water at Chain of Rocks, taken 
from points near the Missouri and Illinois shores. The results are 
set forth in Table 24. (1013-1031.) 

Table 24. —Weekly and monthly averages of analyses of daily samples of water from Mis¬ 
sissippi River at Chain of Rocks. 


[Parts per million.] 




Date. 


1900. 

January 24-31. 

February 1-7. 

February 8-14. 

February 15-21_ 

February 22-28. 

March 1-7. 

March 8-14. 

March 15-21. 

March 22-31. 

April 1-7. 

April 8-14. 

April 15-21. 

April 22-31. 

May 1-7. 

May 8-14. 

May 15-21. 

May 22-31. 

June 1-7. 

June 8-14. 

June 15-21. 

June 22-30. 

July 1-7. 

July 8-14. 

July 15-21. 

July 22-31. 

August 1-7. 

August 8-14. 

August 15-21. 

August 22-31. 

September 1-7. 

September 8-14_ 

September 15-21... 
September 22-30... 
October 1-10. 

1901. 

October 1-7. 

October 8-14. 

October 15-21. 

October 22-28. 

October 29-No- 

vember 4. 

November 5-11. 

November 12-18— 
November 19-25— 
November 26-30_ 


Free ammonia. 


Nitrites. 

• 

Nitrates. 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Missouri 

Illinois 

shore. 

shore. 

shore. 

shore. 

shore. 

shore. 








>> 


>» 

. 

>> 







>> 






7a 

4-> 

7a 


3 


3 


3 


7a 


O 

c 

Qs 

a 


G 

0/ 

G 

Qi 

c 

0, 

c 

Qj 

o 

<D 

o 

<D 

o 

QJ 

O 

Q) 

o 

O 

o 

£ 


£ 


£ 


£ 

< 


s 

£ 

a 

0.1208 

0.1208 

0. 4920 

0. 4920 

0. 0070 

0. 0070 

0. 0130 

0. 0130 

0.565 

0. 565 

1.040 

1.040 

. 2200 


.4670 


.0065 


.0214 


.457 


. 765 


. 1800 

• .1673 


■ .4180 

.0183 

■ .0144 

. 0000 

■ .0187 

. 457 

• .485 


• .790 

. 1431 

. 4820 

.0123 

.0211 

.542 

.882 

. 1260 


. 3050 


. 0206 


.0136 






. 1048 


.3000 


.0140 


.0123 


.688 


[1.205 


. 1582! 

. 1731 

• .1457 

. 2851 
.3020 

• .2981 

.0128 

.0183 

• .0168 

.0080 

.0254 

• .0164 

1.343 

.954 

• .935 

.822 

1.011 

•1.004 

.1468 


.3060 


.0223 


.0200 


.754 


.980 


. 0828! 


.2930 


. 0325 


.0365 


.577 


.977 


. 0525 
.0582 

■ .0009 

.2152 

.1241 

• .1770 

.0118 

.0080 

• .0168 

.0305 

.0288 

• .0308 

. 462 
.434 

■ .478 

1. 022 
.897 

• .936 

. 0503 


. 0790 


.0148 


. 0274 


. 497 


.851 


. 0445 


.0571 


.0057 


.0175 


.594 


.600 


. 0474 
.0668; 

• .0614 

.0503 

.0506 

• .0566 

.0028 

.0028 

• .0035 

. 0134 
.0148 

• .0154 

.451 

.371 

• . 455 

.331 

.394 

• .435 

.0871! 


.0685 


.0023 


.0178 


.405 


. 49 7 


. 0365 


.0351 


.0028 


.0050 


.325 


.422 


. 0277 
. 0374 

• .0416 

.0162 

.0214 

• .0267 

.0026 

.0028 

• .0026 

.0032 

.0035 

■ .0050 

.285 

.371 

• .364 

.388 
. 434 

• .435 

. 0648 


. 0342 


. 0024 


.0084 


. 474 


.494 


.0560 


.0240 


.0015 


.0041 


.423 


.508 


.0231 

.0517 

• .0504 

.0237 

.0300 

• .0291 

.0017 

.0010 

■ .0014 

.0043 

.0043 

• .0041 

.423 

.434 

• . 483 

.514 
. 514 

• .581 

. 0708 


.0388 


.0014 


.0037 


.651 


.788 


.0388 


.0428 


.0001 


.0037 


.491 


.514 


. 0174 
. 0202 

• .0322 

.0260 

.0157 

• .0304 

.0015 

.0014 

• . 0012 

.0077 

.0102 

■ .0003 

.251 

.314 

• .345 

.234 

.304 

• .419 

.0525 


.0371 


. 0017 


.0038 


.325 


.622 


. 0368 


.0271 


.0016 


.0070 


.268 


.485 


. 0265 
.0628 

• .0454 

.0394 

.0506 

• .0448 

.0003 

.0004 

• .0008 

.0071 

.0067 

• . 0068 

.320 

.365 

• .358 

.505 

.428 

• .433 

. 0557 


. 0768 


.0011 


.0067 


.480 


. 313 


. 0508 

.0508 

.0448 

.0448 

.0011 

.0011 

. 0064 

.0064 

.617 

.617 

' .388 

.388 

.0805 


.0869 


.0024 


.0110 


. 428 


.485 


.0502 


.0571 


.0027 


. 0124 


.428 


.291 


. 0449 
.0449 

• .0584 

.0706 

.0557 

• .0732 

.0058 

.0048 

• .0048 

.0144 
' .0160 

• .0132 

.240 
' .377 

■ .375 

.269 

.331 

• .327 

.0717 


.0957 


.0082 


.0123 


. 400 


.360 


. 0634 


.0714 


.0124 


.0167 


.234 


. 497 


.0894 

.0810 

• .0780 

.0720 

.0489 

• .0706 

.0141 

1 .0096 

.0014 

.0177 

.0171 

• .0162 

.257 

.260 

• .246 

.257 
1 .291 

• .326 

. 0844 


.0648 


1 .0128 

1 

.0170 


.184 

1 


l .223 



























































































































TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 


77 


The witness stated in discussing the above table that the investi¬ 
gation was made in this way for the purpose of determining whether 
the water at the intake was of u homogeneous character’’ and whether 
the water on both sides of the river was of the same chemical consti¬ 
tution. A marked difference was found at times, as shown in the 
table. The witness pointed out that soon after the beginning of the 
investigation nitrites were found to be twice as great in proportion 
on the Illinois side as on the Missouri side, and attributed this to the 
fact that in February there was a rise in Illinois River coincident 
with the opening of the Chicago drainage canal; during the same 
time, however, Mississippi River was at low stage. The witness found 
that in general, during the analytical period, the water on the Illinois 
side of the river was from four to five times more polluted than that 
on the Missouri side. He concluded further, from the fact that the 
amount of nitrites in the reservoir was greater than that in Missis¬ 
sippi River along the Missouri shore and less than that along the 
Illinois shore, that there must have been a mixture of the two waters 
at the intake. He added that all the determinations made con¬ 
firmed this interpretation. He then compared the character of the 
water from Missouri River opposite Fprt Beliefontaine with that 
from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks near the Missouri shore and 
declared them to be the same. He further stated that the water at 
Chlain of Rocks near the Illinois shore was at all times Mississippi 
water and that the waters from the two rivers became mixed at the 
intake. This conclusion was reached from a consideration of the 
amounts of chlorine, total solids, and free and albuminoid ammonia 
taken at the three points at Chain of Rocks. In every case the sam¬ 
ples from the intake represent a mean between those from the two 
shores. (1013-1032.) 

The witness then discussed a formula by which the proportion of 
Mississippi and Missouri rivers waters entering the intake at Chain of 
Rocks might be determined. (1032-1034.) This formula may be 
expressed in simple equations, as follows: 

x+ y = 1 
ax + by = c 

in which 

x = Proportion of Missouri River water entering intake. 
y = Proportion of Mississippi River water entering intake. 
a = Amount of chosen constituents in water at Missouri shore, Chain 
of Rocks. 

b = Amount of chosen constituents in water at Illinois shore, Chain of 
Rocks. 

c = Same in mixed water entering intake. 


78 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Taking as an example the week ending August 21, 1900, with the 
nitrite determination as a basis, the witness gave a practical demon¬ 
stration of the use of this formula. The values of a, b, and c for the 
week mentioned are 0.0014, 0.0102, and 0.0035. Substituting these 
values in the above equation, we have— 

0.0014a? + 0.0102?/ = 0.0035. 

Since in the first equation 

x + y = 1, 

the values may be reduced to 

0.0014a? + 0.0102 (1 -a?) =0.0035, 

whence 

a? = f (nearly) 
y = \ (nearly). 

The above computation showed, in the opinion of the witness, that 
during the week mentioned three-fourths of the water delivered to St. 
Louis was from Missouri River and one-fourth from Mississippi River. 

It should be especially noted at this point that Professor Reiser 
based the greater part of his interpretations on the nitrite determina¬ 
tions, occasionally considering the ammonia. Continuing with his 
testimony, he stated that there was always more or less Mississippi 
River water in the reservoir at Chain of Rocks. Although there might 
be one or, perhaps, two days at a time during which the water would 
be largely from the Missouri, yet the mixture in the reservoir would 
always contain a certain amount of Mississippi water. In the opinion 
of the witness Mississippi River is a badly polluted stream below a 
point a short distance above the mouth of Illinois River. Above this 
point the water is in much better condition. lie also characterized 
Missouri River as a fairly good stream from a sanitary standpoint. 
(1034-1035.) 

The witness then entered on a comparison of the nitrites in the 
water of Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, Illinois shore, at Hart¬ 
ford, and at Alton, and stated that the determinations showed in 
general that nitrites were higher at Hartford than at Chain of Rocks, 
and again higher at Alton than at Hartford, though they were very 
much lower in Mississippi River above the confluence of Illinois River. 
The results of these determinations are set forth in Table 25. (1035- 

1037.) 


TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 


79 


Table 25. Weekly and monthly averages of nitrite determinations in daily samples of 
water from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks (Illinois shore), Hartford, and Alton. 

[Parts per million.] 


Date. 

Chain of 

Rocks. 

Hartford. 

Alton. 

Weekly. 

Month ly. 

Weekly. 

Monthly. 

Weekly. 

Monthly. 

1900. 

January 24-31. 

0.0130 
.0214 

0.0130 


0.0183 
f .0220 
.0151 
.0180 
.0248 
. 0234 
.0128 
.0140 
.0191 
. 0240 
.0345 
.0417 
.0431 
.0213 
.0285 
.0340 
.0240 
.0080 
.0047 
.0047 
.0225 
.0114 
.0105 
. 0123 
.0143 
.0053 
.0080 
.0173 
.0074 
. 0100 
.0084 

0.0183 


0.0225 

February 1-7. 


u. uzzo 

February 8-14. 

■ .0187 



. UZOo 
m on 


February 15-21. 

.0211 


. 0199 

. ulyU 

.0225 

.0334 

.0253 

February 22-28. 

.0136 

.0123 

.0080 

.0254 

.0200 





March 1-7. 





March 8-14. 

• . 0164 



• UoOD 

.0225 
.0211 
.0191 
.0205 
.0394 
.0428 
.0485 
.0223 
.0268 
.0388 
. 0277 
. 0075 
.0048 
. 0053 
.0243 
. 0153 
.0163 
.0177 
.0144 
.0071 
.0100 
.0180 
'. 0064 
( .0111 
.0103 

1 0114 


March 15-21. 


.0173 

. 0248 

March 22-31. 





April 1-7. 

.0365 
. 0305 





April 8-14. 





April 15-21. 

.0288 

.0274 

. 0308 

* 

. 0358 

. 0378 

April 22-30. 





May 1-7. 

0157 





May 8-14. 

.0134 

• .0154 




May 15-21. 

.0148 


.0269 

.0289 

May 22-31. 

.0178 





June 1-7. 

.0050 

.0032 





June 8-14. 

.0050 




J une 15-21. 

. 0035 


. 0099 

} .0104 

June 22-30. 

.0084 




I 

July 1-7. 

. 0041 





July 8-14. 

. 0043 

• .0041 


■ .0121 


July 15-21. 

. 0043 


0159 

July 22-31. 

.0037 





August 1-7. 

. 0037 





August 8-14. 

.0077 

006.3 


• .0095 

.0104 

August 15-21. 

. 0102 


August 22-31. 

. 0038 





September 1-7. 

.0070 





September 8-14. 

.0071 

• .0068 


• . 0097 

.0115 

September 15-21. 

. 0067 


.0084 

September 22-30. 

. 0067 



01 90 1 


t .0134 
.0124 


October 1-10. 

. 0064 

.0064 

.0101 

.0101 

.0124 

1901. 

October 1-7. 

.0110 


. 0235 

.0160 

.0121 

October 8-14. 

.0124 



.0184 



October 15-21. 

.0144 

• .0132 


.0150 

• .0173 

.0180 

.0151 

October 22-28. 

.0160 


.0163 

. 0190 

October 29-November 4. 

.0123 



.0137 


.0102 


November 5-11. 

. 0167 



.0191 


. 0103 


November 12-18. 

.0177 

• .0171 


.0190 

• .0183 

. 0124 

.0096 

November 19-25. 

.0171 


.0167 

.0072 

November 26-30. 

.0170 



.0186 

| 

.0088 








In reply to a question concerning the effect of the sewage of Alton 
the witness stated that the chemical data proved that it has no 
apparent effect on the river, because the dilution is so great that the 
amount of sewage entering there does not perceptibly increase the 
amount of organic matter. Continuing, the witness stated that in 
Illinois River the nitrites are considerably higher than in the Missis¬ 
sippi, but far lower in the Mississippi above Grafton than they are in 
the same stream at Alton, Hartford, or Chain of Rocks, indicating 
that Mississippi River above Grafton is in a purer condition than it is 
below. He further stated that chemical analyses show that the pol¬ 
lution of the Mississippi comes from Illinois River, and that if it were 
not for that pollution the water of the river at Chain of Rocks along 
the Illinois shore would be very similar in character to that along the 
Missouri shore with respect to free ammonia and nitrites. Missouri 































































































80 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


River water, however, contains more chlorine than that of the Missis¬ 
sippi because of the fact that large amounts of salt are emptied into 
the river from Kansas. lie finally stated, without qualification, that 
were it not for the flow of the polluted waters of Illinois River the 
Mississippi at Chain of Rocks would afford a good drinking water on 
both sides of the channel. (1041-1043.) 

A chart was then introduced (Complainant’s Exhibit No. 22) show¬ 
ing graphically the variation in the quantities of nitrites found in 
Illinois River above Grafton and above Peoria. It was the conten¬ 
tion of Professor Keiser that this chart showed that the water in Illi¬ 
nois River above Grafton was inferior to that in Mississippi River at 
Alton, and that as Illinois River was ascended the conditions became 
worse, and his conclusions from these facts were as follows: Although 
before the opening of the drainage canal Illinois River contained sew¬ 
age matter, there was greater oxidation in the region above and imme¬ 
diately below Peoria and in fact all along the river, the movement of 
the water was slower in the river, and while the water was impure 
above Peoria a smaller quantity of nitrites was found, showing that 
oxidation had proceeded further than it did subsequent to the open¬ 
ing of the canal; in other words, by the turning in of so great a quan¬ 
tity of water into the Illinois system the ‘/region of bacterial action 
and the conversion of the nitrogenous organic matter into nitrites was 
moved much farther down Illinois River and into Mississippi River 
below the mouth of the Illinois.” The witness further, stated that 
inasmuch as the analyses made during October and November, 1901, 
showed a more highly polluted condition than those made during 1900 
the conditions were growing worse rather than improving. (1043- 
1046.) • % 

Data concerning the nitrites and free ammonia in Illinois River at 
various points were presented and are included in Table 26. (1042- 

1060.) 

The witness then stated that the analyses indicate a decided 
increase in the amount of impurities since the opening of the canal. 
In his judgment this pollution continues down to Chain of Rocks, a 
portion of it finding its way to the intake tower of the waterworks 
and thence to the reservoir at St. Louis. As the volume of water 
going down Illinois River is greater now than previous to the opening 
of the canal there is less opportunity for sedimentation to take place. 
(1048-1049.) 

The maximum allowable amount of free ammonia is 0.05 part per 
million, and when this is exceeded the water is to be regarded with 
suspicion. If there are measurable quantities of nitrites the water 
should be condemned, inasmuch as good drinking water should have 
no nitrites in it. (1052.) 


Table 26. —Monthly averages of daily determinations of nitrites and free ammonia in water from Illinois River at specified points. 

[Parts per million.] 


TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 


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82 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 


The witness gave the data presented in Table 27, with reference to 
the amount of chlorine in the water of Illinois and Mississippi rivers 
above Grafton. (1053.) 

Table 27. —Monthly averages of daily determinations of chlorine in water from Illinois 

and Mississippi rivers above Grafton, 1900. 

[Parts per million.] 


Month. 


January. 
February 
March... 

April. 

May. 


Illinois 

River. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River. 

Month. 

Illinois 

River. 

Missis¬ 

sippi 

River. 

14.1 

5.7 

J une. 

12.6 

5.1 

13.1 

6.1 

J uly. 

18.0 

7.7 

7.0 

4.5 

August. 

16.5 

5.2 

6.1 

4.8 

September. 

14.8 

3.3 

10.9 

4.2 

October. 

16.9 

3.9 


He then gave the comparisons shown in Table 28 with reference to 
Illinois River above Grafton and above Peoria. (1047-1048.) 


Table 28. —Monthly averages of daily determinations of nitrites and free ammonia m 
water from Illinois River above Grafton and above Peoria. 

[Parts per million.] 



Grafton. 

Peoria. 

Nitrites. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

October, 1900. 

0.0428 

.720 

0.0677 

.1502 

0.1857 

.1240 

1.404 

.305 

October, 1901. 



The witness then gave the following data concerning the water 
from the drainage canal off Pauline street, Chicago (1060-1064): 


Table 29. —Determinations of free ammonia, nitrites, and chlorine m daily samples of 
ivater from the Chicago drainage canal off Pauline street. 

[Parts per million.] 


Date. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

[ 

Chlorine. 

1901. 

October 9. 

0.328 

0.016 

22.8 

October 10. 

2.860 

.040 

23.0 

October 11. 

. 676 

.018 

18 0 

October 12. 

.812 

.017 

12.1 

October 13. 

1.66 

.036 

20.8 

October 14. 


. 015 

21.0 

October 15. 

1.072 

.017 

19.0 1 

October 16. 

1.500 

.018 

23.2 

October 17. 

.884 

.018 

19.5 

October 21. 

.672 

.019 

22.3 

October 22. 

.334 

.027 

22.5 

October 23. 

.884 

.013 

17.5 

October 24. 

.796 

.016 

18.2 

October 26. 

.732 

.015 

22.0 

October 27. 

1.020 

.014 

21.3 

October 28. 

1.288 

.025 

21.7 

October 29. 

.744 

.016 

23.8 | 

October 30. 

.700 

.019 

29.0 

October 31. 

.744 

.018 

24.2 

November 1. 

.968 

.028 

21.5 ! 

November 2. 

.628 

.016 

23.0 

November 3. 

.648 

.017 

13.8 1 

November 4. 

.988 

.013 

13.2 

November 5. 

1.068 

.017 

11.3 


Date. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Chlorine. 

1901. 

November 6. 

0.568 

0.015 

10.0 

November 7. 

.652 

.018 

16.0 

November 8. 

. 436 

.028 

12.0 

November 9. 

. .452 

.015 

10.8 

November 10. 

.849 

.015 

14.2 

November 11. 

. 560 

.013 

14.8 

November 12. 

5.192 

.025 

106.0 

November 13. 

.568 

.015 

12.2 

November 14. 

.640 

.015 

9.0 

November 15. 

.468 

.027 

8.0 

November 16. 

.428 

.016 

11.0 

November 17. 

.588 

.023 

11.0 

November 18. 

.452 

.015 

9.0 

November 19. 

.560 

.016 

11.2 

November 21. 

.716 

.007 

8.0 

November 22. 

.564 

.013 

11.9 

November 23. 

.504 

.018 

11.3 

November 24. 

.628 

.017 

12.3 

November 26. 

.404 

.017 

9.0 

November 27. 

.968 

.017 

11.6 

November 28. 

256 

.016 

16.1 

November 29. 

1.892 

.017 

16.2 

November 30. 

2.140 

.015 

29.0 


















































































































TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 83 


The results were then discussed by Professor Keiser substantially 
as follows: 

From these analytical results it is apparent that the water of 
Illinois River was more highly contaminated with nitrogenous organic 
matter at Joliet and Lockport than at Peoria. Higher values are shown 
for free ammonia and nitrites at Joliet than at Lockport. This is 
accounted for by the fact that the samples at Joliet were taken imme¬ 
diately under the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which passes over the 
river at that point. The analyses are typical of sewage; it can not be 
called water. Several months after the analyses began, the quantities 
of nitrites and free ammonia diminished both at Lockport and at 
Joliet. This is accounted for by the outflow of the water of the drain¬ 
age canal. In other words, after the opening of the drainage canal 
this concentrated sewage at Lockport and Joliet was diluted. That, 
in part, is the result shown by the analyses. The results obtained at 
Peoria and points below show that this sewage from Lockport and 
Joliet had been washed farther down the river. There were at 
Grafton much higher nitrites and free ammonia after the opening of 
the canal than before, and that is evidence of the flushing down of the 
sewage matter which had accumulated at Lockport and Joliet and in 
the upper regions of the river. (1064-1065.) 

Professor Keiser was recalled to the witness stand for the purpose 
of making comprehensive interpretations of the chemical data which 
had been offered in evidence by the witnesses on behalf of the plaintiff- 
He submitted the data given in Table 30 concerning the analytical 
results. The first and second entries in the table are the averages of 
17 analyses made from May 2, 1893, to January 24, 1894, by the water 
department of St. Louis, and originally appeared in the message of the 
mayor for 1894. The third entry is the average of 21 analyses made 
at intervals from December 15, 1892, to April 20, 1894, in the chemical 
laboratory of Washington University. The fourth entry is an aver¬ 
age of 26 analyses made by the city chemist at intervals from Sep¬ 
tember 9, 1899, to January 22, 1900. The remainder of the table 
consists of data given in the testimony of Dr. William C. Teichmann. 


Table 30. —Average results of sanitary analyses of Mississippi River water at St. Louis. 

BEFORE OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Date. 


May 2, 1893, to January 24, 
1894. 

April 14, 1893, to January 24, 
1894. 

December 15, 1892, to April 
20, 1894. 

September 9, 1899, to Janu¬ 
ary 22, 1900. 


Number 
of sam¬ 
ples. 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free 

am¬ 

monia. 

Ni¬ 

trites. 

Ni¬ 

trates. 

Chlo¬ 

rine. 

Sampling point. 

17 

1.033 

0. 046 

0. 003 

0.38 


Distributing well. 

17 

.411 

.019 

.002 

.44 


Settling basin. 

21 

.310 

.048 

.005 

.38 


Not designated. 

26 

.522 

.063 

.002 

.39 


Intake tower. 

























84 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 30 .—Average results of sanitary analyses of Mississippi River water at St. 

Louis —Continued. 

AFTER OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Date. 

Number 
of sam¬ 
ples. 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free 

am¬ 

monia. 

Ni¬ 

trites. 

Ni¬ 

trates. 

Chlo¬ 

rine. 

Sampling point. 

February, 1900 .. 

28 

0. 676 

0. 217 

0.013 

0.60 


Intake tower. 

March, 1900. 

31 

1. 202 

. 348 

.014 

. 80 


Do. 

April, 1900... 

30 

1.036 

. 186 

.020 

.60 

9 

Do. 

May, 1900. 

31 

1. 190 

.094 

.011 

.50 

10 

Do. 

June, 1900. 

30 

1.148 

.070 

.004 

.30 

11 

Do. 

July, 1900. 

31 

1. 350 

. 127 

.004 

.30 

10 

Do. 

August, 1900. 

31 

.810 

. 101 

.005 

.40 

12 

Do. 

September, 1900. 

30 

.818 

.093 

.004 

.70 

15 

Do. 

October, 1900. 

31 

.898 

. 118 

.006 

.60 

9 

Do. 

November, 1900. 

30 

.705 

.098 

.007 

.60 

10 

Do. 

December, 1900. 

31 

.289 

. 105 

.011 

. 40 

17 

Do. 

January, 1901. 

31 

. 396 

. 144 

.009 

.80 

19 

Do. 

February, 1901. 

28 

.296 

. 121 

.007 

.70 

19 

Do. 

March, 1901. 

31 

1. 4.55 

.310 

.013 

1. 3 

11 

Do. 

April, 1901. 

30 

1. 034 

. 191 

.016 

1.1 

6 

Do. 

May, 1901. 

31 

..506 

.088 

.002 

.4 

9 

Do. 

June, 1901. 

30 

1. 161 

. 105 

.002 

.5 

10 

Do. 


AVERAGES. 


Before opening. 

a 81 

0. 569 

0. 044 

0. 003 

0. 40 



After opening"!. 

a 515 

.880 

.150 

.009 

.6 

12 



a Total. 


Tn interpreting the above data the witness stated that the analyses 
recorded prior to the opening of the canal show that the water was 
comparatively stable and not unwholesome compared with its subse¬ 
quent condition. January 17, 1900, the drainage canal was opened. 
The water must have reached St. Louis about the beginning of Febru¬ 
ary and the results are clearly shown in the analytical statement made 
for that month. A portion of the great increase noted in free ammonia 
and nitrites in February and March might have been due to the fact 
that in the winter months impurities are usually found to run higher 
than in spring and summer, but the increase during these two months 
was very much greater than had been observed in any previous year. 
From the subsequent results it is apparent, according to the witness, 
that the character of the water has permanently changed. (1697- 
1702.) 

In reply to questions concerning the Missouri River data, the wit¬ 
ness presented the average results recorded in Table 31. Contrasting 
the condition of the water before and after the opening of the canal, 
he stated that the differences were slight—that no change resulted in 
the general character of the water—showing conclusively that the 
changes noted in the Mississippi River water at the Chain of Rocks 
intake tower, could not have been due to any increase of impurities 
in Missouri River. (1702-1704.) 




















































TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 85 

Table 31. —Average results of sanitary analyses of Missouri River water near Fort Belle- 

fontaine. 

[Parts per million.] 

BEFORE OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Date. 

Number 
of sam¬ 
ples. 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

Prior to February 1, 1900. 

19 

0. 499 

0.107 

0.0045 

0.39 


AFTER OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


February 1 to October 10, 1900. 

268 

1.203 

0.142 

0.007 

0.50 

October 1 to November 30, 1901. 

61 

.631 

.069 

.003 

.55 


The witness then testified concerning the results in evidence, with 
reference to the character of the water of Mississippi River at Hart¬ 
ford, 1 mile above the mouth of the Missouri, 17 analyses of the water 
having been made at intervals between August 3 and December 4, 
1899. The average of these analyses, together with those obtained 
after the opening of the canal during the periods January 23 to Octo¬ 
ber 10, 1900, and October 1 to November 30, 1901, will be found in 
Table 32. (1705.) 

Table 32. —Average results of sanitary analyses of Mississippi River water opposite 

Hartford. 

[Parts per million.] 

BEFORE OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Date. 

Number 
of sam¬ 
ples 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

August 3 to December 4, 1899. 

17 

0.622 

0.107 

0.004 

0.5 


AFTER OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Tanuarv 23 tn OrHoHpr 10. 1900. 

260 

0.613 

0. 275 

0.018 

0.7 

Or.tr.hsr 1 tr> Nnvpmber 30. 1901. 

61 

.368 

.062 

.011 

.54 








In interpreting these results, the witness pointed out the fact that 
at Hartford, as at the intake, there had been a permanent increase 
in the amount of pollution in the water after the opening of the 
canal. (1704-1706.) 

The witness then took up the analyses of samples from Mississippi 
River above the mouth of the Illinois and presented the average 
results, as shown in Table 33. (1706-1707.) 































































86 POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 33. —Average results of sanitary analyses of water from Mississippi River above 

mouth of Illinois River. 

[Parts per million.] 

BEFORE OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Date. 

Number 
of sam¬ 
ples. 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

Chlorine. 

September 6, 1899, to January 17, 1900. 

18 

0.503 

0.069 

0.002 

0.30 

6.0 

AFTER OPENING 

OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 



January 23 to October 10, 1900. 

204 

0.587 

0.138 

0.008 

0.46 

5.0 

October 1 to November 30, 1901. 

61 

.348 

.057 

.001 

.10 

4.3 


The witness stated that these data plainly showed that the water 
from Mississippi River above the mouth of the Illinois is in stable 
condition, and that practically no change has taken place in its com¬ 
position since the opening of the canal—a fact which excludes the 
possibility that the change in the character of the St. Louis water is 
due to increased impurities in the upper Mississippi. (1706-1707.) 

He then gave the results of analyses of samples of water from 
Illinois River 3 miles above Grafton, collected before and after the 
opening of the Chicago drainage canal. These results are included 
in Table 34. (1707-1708.) 


Table 34.— Average results of sanitary analyses of Illinois River water 3 miles above 
\ Grafton. 

[Parts per million.] 

BEFORE OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


Date. 

Number 
of sam¬ 
ples. 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

Chlorine. 

September 6, 1899, to January 17,1900. 

19 

0.553 

0.215 

0.012 

0.8 

25.0 


AFTER OPENING OF DRAINAGE CANAL. 


January 23 to October 10, 1900. 

265 

0.509 

0.272 

0.032 

0.96 | 

13.0 

October 1 to November 30, 1901 . 

61 

.373 

.110 

.043 

..7! 

21.6 


The witness stated that prior to the opening of the canal the 
Illinois water above Grafton was badly polluted and impotable. 
Nevertheless, for ten months after the opening of the canal there 
was an increase in free ammonia of nearly 27 per cent and in nitrites 
of 167 per cent. The only conclusion to be (Prawn from these figures 
is, according to the witness, that after the canal was opened there 
was a much larger quantity of sewage undergoing putrefactive change 
than before, and he argued that it was this sewage from Illinois River 
which had caused a permanent change in the character of the water 
entering the St. Louis intake at Chain of Rocks. (1707-170S.) 




























































TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 87 

The witness then presented the average results of analyses of water 
from Illinois River above Grafton and above Peoria; from Desplaines 
River at Joliet; from the Illinois and Michigan Canal and the drain¬ 
age canal at Lockport, and from Lake Michigan. These results are 
shown in Table 35. (1708-1710.) 

Table 35.— Average results of analyses of water from stated points, January 23 to October 

10, 1900. 


[Parts per million.] 


Sampling point. 

Number 
of analy¬ 
ses. 

Albumi¬ 

noid 

ammonia. 

Free 

ammonia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

Chlorine. 

Illinois River 3 miles above Grafton . 

265 

0. 482 

0.239 

0.034 

1.11 

14 7 

Illinois River 3 miles above Peoria... 

260 

.284 

. 468 

.095 

1. 48 

19. 4 

Desplaines River at Joliet. 

219 

.452 

2. 732 

.057 

.22 

23.9 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lock- 







port. 



13. 250 

. 009 

0 

150. 0 

Drainage canal at Lockport. 

219 


1.585 

.026 

. 15 

15. 0 

Lake Michigan.. 

219 


.043 

.005 

. 15 

6.0 


The witness pointed out that the figures in the above table show 
that the water becomes steadily more and more impure as Illinois 
River is ascended, and that the entire river is in a highly polluted con¬ 
dition. The water of Lake Michigan, from which the supply of the 
two canals is derived, is in good condition from a sanitary standpoint, 
and the fact that it contains so large an amount of organic matter 
by the time it reaches the canals is sufficient proof that this matter 
must be derived from the sewage of Chicago, the results of which are 
traceable all along the valley and down to the St. Louis intake. 
(1708-1710.) 

The witness made and discussed a series of statements concerning 
the pollution or amount of organic matter in water from various 
points before and after the opening of the Chicago drainage canal, 
based on averages of analyses made at specified periods. He con¬ 
sidered that the determinations of albuminoid and free ammonia and 
nitrites would constitute a sufficient index of pollution. The results 
are set forth in Table 36. (1073-1078.) 


Table 36. —Averages of analyses of water at chosen points before and after the opening of 

the Chicago drainage canal. 

[Parts per million.] 


Sampling point. 

Albuminoid 

ammonia. 

Free ammonia. 

Nitrites. 

Before. 

After. 

Before. 

After. 

Before. 

After. 

Reservoir, St. Louis. 

Mississippi River at Alton... 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. ... 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

Illinois River above Grafton. 

Illinois River above Peoria. 

0.214 
.200 
.063 
.478 
. 478 

a. 572 

0.271 
.728 
.395 
.565 
.913 
( a 2. 210 
\ h . 627 

0. Ill 
.288 
. 135 
. 113 
. 113 

| o . 895 

0. 210 
. 460 
. 148 
.176 
. 946 
/ a 3. 060 
\ b 1. 950 

0.004 
.212 
.008 
' .005 
.005 

j o.l41 

0. 013 
. 104 
.014 
.005 
.025 
( a . 060 

\ b . 030 


b According to E. H. Keiser. 


a According to J. H. Long. 























































88 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The periods of analyses included in the above table are as follows: 

For the reservoir at St. Louis: Before opening of canal, January, 1900. 

After opening of canal, February, 1900. 

For Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine: Before opening of canal, January, 1900. 

After opening of canal, February, 1900. 

For Mississippi River at Alton: Before opening of canal, January, 1900. 

After opening of canal, February, 1900. 

For Mississippi River above Grafton: Before opening of canal, January, 1900. 

After opening of canal, February, 1900. 

For Illinois River above Grafton: Before opening of canal, January 23-31, 1900. 

After opening of canal, February 21-28, 1900. 

For Illinois River above Peoria: Before opening of canal, J. H. Long’s results for 1899. 

After opening of canal, Long’s results, February to 
April, inclusive, 1900, and those of the witness, 
February to March, inclusive, 1900. 

According to the witness the figures in Table 36 show unmistakably 
that there was a great increase in the pollution of Illinois River after 
the opening of the canal, but no corresponding increase in that of the 
Mississippi above Grafton or of Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The cross-examination brought out the admission from Professor 
Reiser that he had made no personal investigation of the Illinois 
River drainage area and that the physical conditions, except as they 
might be learned from maps, were unknown to him. He declared, 
however, that such knowledge is not necessary to an intelligent 
interpretation of his results. (1080-1081.) 

The cross-examiner then endeavored to show that the method used 
by the witness to determine the proportion of Mississippi and Missouri 
river waters entering the intake at St. Louis is faulty, because the 
algebraic formula does not take account of the relative amounts of 
water furnished by these streams, to which the witness responded 
that no such fallacy is involved, because the values are true irrespec¬ 
tive of the volumes of water making the mixture. If in a mixture of 
Missouri and Mississippi river waters the amount of Missouri water 
was one-third greater than the Mississippi, but the Mississippi pol¬ 
luted twice as much as the Missouri, the degree of pollution in the 
mixture chargeable to each stream would not correspond with the 
relative-volumes of the two streams, but with the relative proportions 
of impurity. (1100-1103.) 

In response to questions, the witness then gave the monthly aver¬ 
age results of his analyses of water from Missouri River at Fort 
Bellefontaine. (1104-1106.) 


TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 89 

Table 37 .—Monthly averages of daily analyses of water from Missouri River at Fort 

Beliefontaine, 1900. 


[Parts per million.] 


Month. 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Nitrites. 

Nitrates. 

Chlorine. 

January. 

0.363 

0.135 

0.008 

0. 415 

23.5 

February. 

.395 

.232 

.014 

.592 

18.6 

March... 

1.182 

.144 

.023 

.965 

12.1 

April. 

.775 

.069 

.018 

.485 

12.5 

Mav. 

1.484 

-.083 

.013 

.484 

14.5 

J urie... 

1.181 

.067 

.003 

.418 

11.4 

July... 

1.556 

.055 

.001 

.462 

11.2 

August. 

.842 

.038 

.001 

.435 

12.8 

September. 

1.133 

.068 

.002 

.381 

16.3 

October. 

1.382 

.055 

.002 

.560 

11.4 


The witness stated that he had made no determinations of the vol¬ 
ume of water contributed to Illinois River by its tributaries nor had 
he taken this into consideration. He had regarded all the impurity 
found in Illinois River as coming from the drainage canal, because 
these impurities increased steadily as the river was ascended. If the 
impurities were derived from the tributaries, the amounts of albu¬ 
minoid and free ammonia and nitrites would be fairly constant 
throughout the length of the main stream, but inasmuch as there was 
a constant increase all the way upstream and as at Joliet the river 
water was found to be merely dilute sewage, the chief cause of pollu¬ 
tion must lie in the drainage canal. (1108-1110.) 

The cross-examiner then directed the attention of Professor Reiser 
to that part of his testimony in which he referred to a report of Prof. 
J. H. Long in presenting figures to show the comparative condition 
of the water of Illinois River at Peoria before and after the opening 
of the canal. He pointed out that the witness had given for free 
ammonia the values 0.895 (Long) before the opening and 3.060 (Long) 
and 1.950 (Reiser) after the opening. (See p. 87.) The cross-exam¬ 
iner showed that the witness had selected Long’s free ammonia deter¬ 
minations from samples taken at “The Narrows,” above Peoria, to 
show the condition before the opening of the canal, and the determina¬ 
tions from samples taken at Wesley, belowPeoria, and in the field of 
high contamination from Peoria sewers, to show the condition after 
the opening of the canal. It appears from an examination of the tes¬ 
timony and Long’s report that three series of examinations were con¬ 
ducted by him at Peoria. The first extended from July 5 to November 
29, 1899, the samples being taken at Peoria Narrows (above Peoria) 
and at Wesley (below Peoria); the second extended from March 7 to 
April 25, 1900, all the samples being taken at Wesley; the third 
extended from June 7 to October 10, 1900, the samples being taken 
at both points mentioned. 

The witness finallv admitted that he had compared the figures for 
Peoria Narrows for 1899 (before canal opening) with those lor Wesley 





























90 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


for March and April, 1900 (after canal opening). In attempting to 
justify this comparison the witness made the following statements: 
First, as no analytical results appeared in Long’s report with reference 
to the water above Peoria in the examination of March and April, 1900, 
and as the witness desired to procure data for a period as close as pos¬ 
sible to the opening of the canal he had selected the Wesley figures for 
the stated period, believing that the effect of the Peoria sewage was 
negligible. Second, the analyses made by Long of water taken from 
Peoria Narrows, July 5 to November 29, 1899, and June 7 to October 
10, 1900, would not admit of comparison by average statements, 
as the comparisons were stated in the witness’s testimony, because 
the average of the determinations for 1899 included analyses made 
during November, while those of 1900 ended October 10. Free am¬ 
monia and nitrites increase greatly in November, and to include these 
determinations in the average for 1899 would result in an unfair com¬ 
parison in favor of the defendants. Why, if such were the case, he 
did not make the comparison by eliminating the results of Long’s 
analyses for November, 1899, and leaving only the determinations 
extending to October 10, the date of the closing of Long’s investiga¬ 
tion of 1900, he did not venture to explain. It is evident from the 
testimony that lie believed it equitable to take for comparison the 
results of an entirely different part of the year, viz, March and April, 
1900. Third, while he had quoted figures from Long’s report, as 
above stated, he also included the results of his own analyses for 1900, 
and his interpretations were not affected by Long’s results. Why, if 
such were the case, he included them in his testimony was not 
explained. 

The cross-examiner pointed out that had he taken Long’s results for 
Peoria Narrows in 1900 there would have appeared in the comparison 
a great decrease in ammonia and nitrites instead of the increase 
reported. The witness thereupon denied that such a comparison 
would be warranted for reasons above stated. 

After further questions concerning the figures of the comparison 
made by the witness, lie made the following statements: 

I wasn’t aware that there was any certain degree of difference. In making this 
comparison I found the table on page 44 [Long’s report] was the nearest one that 
Professor Long has published of results made after the opening of the drainage canal, 
and I took Peoria here as being the nearest point to that point where I had taken 
samples for analysis. I didn’t know where it was exactly, and I didn’t know whether 
the sewage of Peoria got into the river at Wesley. I thought it was considerably below, 
if anything. I did not think it was right in the town of Peoria. (1128-1129.) 

The cross-examiner then called the attention of the witness to page 
36 of Long’s report, in which values for free ammonia, albuminoid 
ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates are given for samples of water taken 
at the Narrows, above Peoria, from July 5 to November 23, 1899, and 
again to page 64 of the same book, where values are given for the 


TESTIMONY OF EDWARD H. REISER. 


91 


same determinations from samples taken at the same point during 
the period from June 7 to October 9, 1900. It will be noted that 
these two periods are before and after the opening of the canal, 
respectively. The witness was then asked if in the showing for free 
ammonia, albuminoid ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates there was a 
considerable reduction in the latter period as compared with the 
former period. To this he replied “Yes,” and in explanation of this 
reply made the following statement: 

I wish to state that we are now comparing analyses of waters made at different seasons 
of the year. We are comparing analyses made in the fall of the year, from July down 
to the end of November, when the rivers are apt to be low, with the analyses made in 
the early summer, * * * when the rivers are apt to be swollen with rainfall, and 
therefore it is not altogether a good comparison. In my work I was not endeavoring 
to establish the yearly value. I was endeavoring to determine what the effect of the 
opening of the canal was, and for that purpose I compared [analyses made before the 
opening of the canal a] with the analyses made immediately after the opening of the 
canal * * * and I found my own analyses showed an increase immediately after 

the opening, taking analyses as near as we have them to the opening. (1131-1132.) 

The cross-examiner then called the attention of the witness to that 
part of his testimony in which lie affirmed that the waters of Missouri 
River at Fort Bellefontaine and of Mississippi River above the mouth 
of the Illinois were fairly good from a sanitary standpoint. He then 
recalled the statement of the witness that water containing a measur¬ 
able quantity of nitrites should be regarded with suspicion. Finally, 
he reviewed the testimony of the witness concerning the character of 
the water of Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine, in which he stated 
that there was an average of 0.008 and 0.014 part per million of 
nitrites before and after the opening of the canal, respectively, and 
asked him to reconcile these statements. In reply, the witness stated 
that only during the summer months were the nitrites low and the 
water potable, but during the winter the nitrites were high and the 
water was unfit for use in its raw state. (1132-1134.) 

Other features of this cross-examination are of interest as showing 
the basis on which the witness interpreted sanitary analyses. In reply 
to various questions he made the significant statements that he did 
not include in the evidence presented the determinations of total 
solids, because they would throw very little light on the sanitary 
condition of the water; that he would be able to give an opinion as 
to the sanitary condition of the St. Louis water without a knowledge 
of the chlorine content, although in general to determine the potability 
of water this factor should be taken into consideration; that the 
determination of oxygen consumed is not always of importance, 
although at times it assists in forming an opinion about the water, 
especially when very little is known about the natuial history, that 
he did not think it necessary to determine dissolved oxygen, because 


a Phrase in brackets missing in record; inserted here to complete sentence. 






92 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


it did not add information of value; that he considered the determina¬ 
tion of albuminoid ammonia of very little value in determining the 
character of the waters under discussion. (1711-1717.) 

It was apparent from the statement of the witness (1716) that he 
accepted an absolute standard of potability defined by the analysis as 
follows: Free ammonia should not be greater than 0.1 part per million 
and the nitrites should lie hardly measurable. Several analyses were 
recited to him and he at once designated the waters good or bad 
according as the ingredients were below or above the standard just 
mentioned. 

GEORGE CHANDLER WHIPPLE. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

George Chandler Whipple, called as a witness on behalf of the com¬ 
plainant, in qualifying as an expert, stated that he was biologist and 
director of the Mount Prospect laboratory of the department of 
water supply, gas, and electricity of the city of New York, and that 
he had held that position since 1897, except that before the consolida¬ 
tion of New York and Brooklyn he was employed b} r the city of 
Brooklyn. He had graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology in 1889 in the course of civil engineering, and imme¬ 
diately after graduation was employed on some water-filtration 
experiments under Desmond Fitzgerald, superintendent of the Bos¬ 
ton waterworks. In the fall of the same year he was placed in charge 
of the newly established biological laboratory of the Boston water 
department, with the title of biologist, and was given supervision of 
all the water supplies of the city. In connection with this work he 
made tests of sewage and water purification plants and trips of inspec¬ 
tion to other water supplies in the State and to the Lawrence experi¬ 
ment station. He made many studies on the growth of organisms in 
water, on the temperature of large bodies of water, and on stagnation 
phenomena, and assisted in designing the thermaphone, an instru¬ 
ment for obtaining the temperature of water at the bottom of reser¬ 
voirs. In 1896 he spent four months with Prof. Albert R. Leeds in 
the study of the Brooklyn water, which at that time was infected 
with organisms, causing a bad odor. In 1897 he established the 
Mount Prospect laboratory for the city of Brooklyn, the scope of 
which was later extended to cover all the water supplies of Greater 
New York. In 1903 all the sanitary work of the extensive investi¬ 
gation on an additional water supply for the city of New York was 
placed in his hands. He had had considerable private practice and 
had carried out in that capacity a number of important investigations 
connected with water-supply questions. He is the author of a book 
entitled “The Microscopy of Drinking Water” and is engaged in a 
work on hygienic analysis and another on water supply. He devised 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE C. WHIPPLE. 


93 


the scheme for numerically recording odors in water and also the 
silica standard for turbidity. He is a member of the American Society 
of Civil Engineers, the American Chemical Society, the American 
Microscopical Society, the Society of American Bacteriologists, the 
American Public Health Association, the Society of Chemical Indus¬ 
try, and the American Limnological Commission and a fellow of the 
Royal Microscopical Society of London. He was at the time of the 
testimony secretary of the laboratory section of the American Public 
Health Association, and secretary of the committee on standard 
methods of water analyses of that section. (1903-1908.) 

The witness testified that during the months of October and Novem¬ 
ber, 1901, he had made microscopical examinations of 136 samples of 
water collected from various stations on Lake Michigan, the drainage 
canal, Illinois River and its tributaries, and Mississippi and Missouri 
rivers, with the object of determining the number and character 
of the microscopic organisms present. In certain of these samples 
he also made determinations of the turbidity and the color. Mr. 
Whipple described microscopic organisms as “those minute forms 
of life which are too small to be readily identified without the use of 
a microscope, but which are large enough so that they do not need to 
be studied by artificial cultures as we study bacteria." The witness 
stated it as his opinion that in the transit from the point of collection 
to the laboratory at Brooklyn certain of the forms present might die 
out, others might increase somewhat, and still others would remain 
practically unchanged in numbers. (1909-1911.) 

The witness then put in evidence fifteen sheets showing the results 
of his examinations. (See Table 9,„ p. 29.) After describing in 
some detail the organisms found in the various waters lie directed 
special attention to the diatoms. He stated that owing to the char¬ 
acter of the diatom skeleton, which is of silica and practically inde¬ 
structible, this organism was more likely than other microscopic 
organisms to be identified after the trip from Lake Michigan through 
the drainage canal and Desplaines and Illinois rivers to the St. Louis 
intake. (1911-1922.) 

The following testimony is especially important: 

Q. Are you able or not to say from your examinations and your knowledge upon this 
subject whether any particular species of these diatoms or micro-organisms came from 
Lake Michigan or not? 

A. There were certain diatoms found during my examinations which appeared to 
be characteristic of Lake Michigan and Lake Michigan alone—I would like to change 
that—Lake Michigan and nowhere else excepting the streams below to which the water 
from Lake Michigan has access. 

Q. Can you say whether or not any of the micro-organisms which were peculiar to 
Lake Michigan were found in the Mississippi River at the intake? And, if so, state 
which ones they were and how they got there. 



94 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


A. There was an organism which I will describe as Synedra pulchella variety sub¬ 
prolong ata which was found at the intake of the waterworks at the Chain of Rocks, and 
which was found also in the water of Lake Michigan, but which was not found in the 
water of the Missouri River or the water of the upper Mississippi River, or in any of 
the tributaries of the Illinois River unless we consider the Chicago drainage canal as 
being a tributary. (1924.) 

The summary of the counts of this class of organisms appears in 
Table 38. (1925.) 

Table 38 .—Average results of examinations for microscopic organisms in samples taken 

at designated points. 

[Number per cubic centimeters.] 


Source of samples. 

Synedra. 

Tabel¬ 

laria. 

Melosira. 

Cyclo¬ 

tella. 

Asterio¬ 

nella. 

Stepha¬ 

nodiscus. 

Lake Michigan. 

.577 

236 

13 

38 

25 

8 

Drainage canal at Lockport. 

270 

236 

13 

30 

22 

2 

Desplaines River at Lockport. 

2 

2 

1 

264 

. 113 

9 

All other tributaries of Illinois River. 

17 

3 

2 

709 

13 

1 

Illinois River above Peoria. 

126 

62 

8 

48 

10 

3 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

95 

19 

0 

784 

31 

0 

Illinois River at Grafton... 

90 

46 

8 

4,468 

41 

3 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

1 

0 

2,400 

1,372 

569 

307 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

19 

16 

1,741 

2,534 

124 

174 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine_ 

5 

0 

22 

16 

0 

6 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, Illi¬ 
nois shore. 

51 

21 

1,380 

1,957 

396 

192 

Intake tower, Chain of Rocks. 

16 

0 

403 

443 

40 

93 

Settling basin, St. Louis. 

0 

12 

0 

256 

68 

10 


Referring to this table, witness stated his belief that the 16 Synedra 
found at the St. Louis intake came not from the Mississippi nor the 
Missouri, but from Illinois River, and that since there were 577 Synedra 
in Lake Michigan and all the tributaries of the Illinois together except 
Desplaines River gave only 17 Synedra , the Synedra at the intake 
came from Lake Michigan by the drainage canal and Desplaines River. 
Similarly he concluded that the Tabellaria found in the settling basin 
came mainly from the lake rather than from any other source; that 
the Melosira found at the intake came not from Illinois River nor from 
Lake Michigan, but from Mississippi River above Grafton; that the 
Cyclotella came chiefly from Mississippi and Illinois rivers and only 
to a slight extent from the lake; that the Asterionella came in the 
main from the Mississippi; and that the Stephanodiscus came mainly 
from the Mississippi above Grafton. (1926-1929.) 

Mr. Whipple then introduced five charts (complainant’s Exhibit 
No. 47, pis. 1-5) showing diagrammatically the figures given in 
Table 38, and discussed the variations noted. (1930-1934.) 

Two diagrams were then introduced, one showing the results of an 
examination of samples from twelve points in a cross section of Miss¬ 
issippi River above Alton and the other the results of a similar exami¬ 
nation of eleven samples on a cross section of the Mississippi about 1 
mile above Chain of Rocks. Besides the numbers of the microscopic 
organisms in these samples the witness determined also the color and 
































95 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE C. WHIPPLE. 

b !u 

the turbidity. He made a calculation from the relative numbers of 
Melosira, Cyclotella, Asterioneila, and Stephanodiscus present in the 
Missouri River water at Fort Bellefontaine, the Mississippi River 
water at Alton, and the water at the intake of the St. Louis water¬ 
works to determine the relative amounts of Missouri River water and 
Mississippi River water (including Illinois River water) entering the 
intake, estimating the proportions as 68 per cent of Missouri water and 
32 per cent of Mississippi water. (1934-1941.) 

Mr. Whipple described Mississippi River in respect to the direction 
of its banks and the curves of the river between the mouth of the 
Missouri and Chain of Rocks. He stated that the curves were of such 
a nature that they would tend to allow or increase or would be favor¬ 
able to the mixture of the waters which came down Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers. In his opinion, if the figures introduced in evidence 
concerning the total solids in Missouri and Mississippi river waters 
(Table 20, p. 63) are reliable, then the calculations based on them 
to show the percentages of the waters of the two rivers entering the 
intake are also reliable. He stated that the total solids were the 
most accurate analytical determinations to use in such a calculation, 
because the two streams in question differ most widely in that respect. 
Chlorine, alkalinity, and color may also be used for the same purpose. 
(1978-1989.) 

If only the cities on the drainage area of Mississippi River above St. 
Louis having 25,000 population or more are considered, the addition of 
Chicago doubles the population contributing sewage to the river, while 
if all communities having a population of 4,000 or more are considered 
the addition of Chicago increases the total contributing population 
by 63 per cent. The limit of 4,000 is the one commonly used by sani¬ 
tarians in considering the population contributing pollution to a given 
drainage area, and it is assumed that the small amount of pollution 
from ^owns not included in the estimate is balanced by an equal 
amount from inhabitants of the communities included who are not 
connected with sewerage systems. (1989-1991.) 

From complainant’s Exhibit No. 1, already in evidence, the witness 
had calculated certain average analytical figures, as follows: Daily 
samples from October 30 to November 29, 1901, collected at five 
points in a cross section of Mississippi River at Alton, gave the average 
fio-ures shown in Table 39 for nitrites and chlorine. Station A was- at 

o 

the Missouri shore, station E at the Illinois shore, and the other sta¬ 
tions were intermediate. (1992.) 


96 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 39. —Averages of nitrites and chlorine in Mississippi River at Alton, October 30 to 

November 29, 1901 . 

[Parts per million.] 


Station. 

Nitrites. 

Chlorine. 

Station. 

Nitrites. 

Chlorine. 

A 

0.002 

5.2 

D. 

0.0105 

9.7 

B 

.005 

6.8 

E. 

.0115 

10.0 

c. 

.009 

8.7 





Similar samples for the same period from five points in a cross sec¬ 
tion of Mississippi River at Hartford gave the average results shown 
in Table 40. (1993.) 


Table 40. —Averages of nitrites and chlorine, in Mississippi River at Hartford, October 30 

to November 29, 9101. 

[Parts per million.] 


Station. 

Nitrites. 

Chlorine. 

Station. 

Nitrites. 

Chlorine. 

A. 

0.006 

6.8 

D. 

0.009 

8.8 

B. 

. 006 

7.1 

E. 

.010 

9.1 

C. 

.008 

8.0 





From these figures, together with similar averages from Mississippi 
River at Grafton and Illinois River at Grafton (the latter two series 
of averages not being offered in evidence), the witness calculated the 
percentage of Illinois River water at the five points in each cross sec¬ 
tion, as shown in Table 41. (1993-1994.) 


Table 41. —Percentage of Illinois River water in Mississippi River at Alton and at Hart¬ 
ford, October 30 to November 29, 1901. 


Station. 

Alton. 

Hartford. 

Station. 

Alton. 

Hartford. 

A. 

7.8 

17.17 

D... . 

< 

35.4 

37.2 

• 

29.8 

31.7 

B. 

7.7 

19.5 

E. 

C. 

29.3 

25.0 







The longevity of the typhoid bacillus in natural waters was stated 
by the witness to be several months, though the numbers would grad¬ 
ually decrease. On the assumption that the Chicago sewage reached 
the St. Louis intake in ten and one-half days, he stated as his opinion 
that if typhoid organisms were present in the Chicago sewage a part 
of them would survive the passage to the intake, and that in times of 
flood, when the journey from the lake to St. Louis is made in eight 
days, a greater proportion of such germs would survive. He cited 
epidemics at Detroit and Lawrence, in both of which the organisms 
had persisted in the water for a period of over ten and one-half days. 
On the assumption of an increased typhoid death rate in St. Louis 





































































TESTIMONY OE GEORGE C. WHIPPLE. 


97 


since the opening of the drainage canal and of a normal amount of the 
disease on the drainage basin of Mississippi River above the city, and 
the further assumption that the source of the St. Louis water supply 
had remained unchanged during the time considered, the witness 
stated that, in his opinion, the increase in the typhoid death rate in 
St. Louis was most probably due to the discharge of the Chicago sew¬ 
age into Mississippi River. (1996-2002.) 

On the assumption that large numbers of Bacillus prodigiosus were 
placed in the waters of the drainage canal at Lemont and that the 
same organism was found in the city water of St. Louis after the lapse 
of a proper time, the witness believed that the organisms at St. Louis 
originated in those placed in the canal. He stated that the longevity 
of B. typhosus and B. prodigiosus was, so far as his experience enabled 
him to judge, about the same. He further believed that if, since the 
opening of the drainage canal, a larger amount of the Cliicago sewage 
has reached Mississippi River than formerly, the water of the river 
has become less valuable as a source of domestic supply. (2002-2009.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

On cross-examination Mr. Whipple stated that the best way to 
determine the presence of sewage in water is to actually find out 
whether or not sewage enters the water. In the absence of this infor¬ 
mation analytical results will supply the information in some cases 
only. If the water is grossly polluted, analyses will show the presence 
of the contaminating matter, but if it is only slightly polluted the 
presence of such matter can not be determined in this way. There 
are no qualities of water which, taken alone, would enable the witness 
to determine possible pollution, but among the qualities which he 
would naturally consider in forming an opinion would be the amount 
of organic matter as shown by the determination of nitrogen as albu¬ 
minoid ammonia, free ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates, together with 
the amount of chlorine, the hardness, the total and suspended solids, 
and the color; also the number of bacteria in the water and the pres¬ 
ence of particular species of bacteria, such as Bacillus coli communis. 
The witness stated that he would further take into consideration the 
possible presence of certain microscopic organisms commonly asso¬ 
ciated with sewage. It is not always necessary to make all the deter¬ 
minations above noted. With respect to certain of the determina¬ 
tions, the witness stated that there is no such substance as “ albumi¬ 
noid ammonia,” this being merely a form of expression used in 
describing the amount of organic matter present. “Free ammonia” 
is used in a similar manner, and it is taken to mean that the water con¬ 
tains ammonium compounds that on boiling are broken up so that the 


■7 



98 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


ammonia is driven off. Neither of the two terms is the name of a sub¬ 
stance actually existing in the water, but they stand for substances. 
(2051-2061.) 

With reference to the significance of the presence of Bacillus coli 
communis, the witness said that he could not state definitely that it 
indicates sewage origin. It is believed by many scientists that this 
organism may be found in waters where pollution is remote. It is a 
common inhabitant of the human intestine and is present in large num¬ 
bers in ordinary sewage. As it is abundant in waters known to be 
polluted and occurs only in small numbers or is entirely absent in 
waters presumably not polluted, most bacteriologists agree that the 
test for the presence of this organism is highly important in determin¬ 
ing the presence of pollution. If the organism is constantly or very 
often present in a water it is probably an indication of sewage con¬ 
tamination. In the opinion of the witness, however, it is not an abso¬ 
lute test, but a valuable one, to be interpreted in connection with the 
remainder of the analysis. Even though this bacillus might be found 
in the intestines of fish, it would not, in his judgment, materially 
influence the interpretation to be made from the results of the coli 
test, because it had been his observation that fishes’ intestines do not 
ordinarily contain this bacillus, and if it is present there it is probably 
derived from the water in which the fish is living. (2075-2077.) 

Referring to micro-organisms, the witness stated that he did not 
know of any that absolutely demonstrate the presence of sewage, but 
there are certain organisms which are so often associated with sewage 
that in a very general way they do serve as an index of its presence. 
However, it could not be asserted that a stream was sewage polluted 
merely because these organisms were found there. (2078.) 

The witness could not state definitely the number of typhoid germs 
discharged by one patient, but as a general statement it was true that 
the number is enormous. Under certain conditions this number 
would be sufficient to create an epidemic if they were turned into 
water used for a city supply, but many factors would be involved, 
among which are the original vitality of the organisms, the rate at 
which they might die out in water, the relation of the number of organ¬ 
isms to the amount of water that they enter, the amount of sedimenta¬ 
tion that might occur between the time at which they infected the 
water, and the time at which they entered the city intake, the influ¬ 
ence of certain microscopic organisms, and the possible influence of 
sunlight. He knew of no scientist who had actually demonstrated 
how long the bacillus of typhoid will live in the sewage-contaminated 
water of a stream, but some men have arrived at certain conclusions 
by way of laboratory experiments. According to the results of such 
experiments, the time may be stated as varying from some weeks to 
some months. (2080-2082.) 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE C. WHIPPLE. 


99 


The witness stated that lie knew of some investigators who had 
claimed to have discovered the typhoid germ in river water, but was 
unable to state whether the claim was substantiated. In the earlier 


days of bacteriology, when species were not so carefully studied as they 
are to-day, certain results were obtained and published by bacteriolo¬ 
gists that would hardly be credited in the present state of the science. 
(2082.) 


The effect of dilution was then discussed by the witness, who stated 
that if a certain number of typhoid bacilli were put into different 


amounts of water and thoroughly mixed, the larger quantity of water 
would contain the fewer bacteria per unit volume. This statement, 
however, assumed a uniform distribution of the bacilli throughout the 


water, which he did not regard as a condition that would be likely to 
exist. Usually when bacilli are discharged into water, many of them 
are clustered together and held in that condition by some force or sub¬ 
stance, while on the other hand some of them are widely distributed 


throughout the water; but the conditions are not such as would allow 
the dangerous qualities of typhoid-polluted water with different 
degrees of dilution to be fairly compared. (2083-2084.) 

Referring to the speed of current necessary to permit sedimentation, 
the witness stated that if the velocity is reduced to about half a foot 
per second, sedimentation of suspended matter of a certain character 
might occur. If the suspended matter were coarser it would settle in 
a current of greater velocity, but he could imagine such matter so fine 
that it would not settle even if the velocity were only a quarter of a 
foot per second. The knowledge of the subject had not reached a 
point where any strict rule could be given. The whole matter of sedi¬ 
mentation depends on the character of the suspended matter, the 
temperature, and other conditions, as well as the velocity of flow. 
Experiments have been made on the subject, but not in sufficient 
number to warrant the formulation of a precise statement. (2088-2089..) 

It was the opinion of the witness, from what he knew of the existing 
conditions on the drainage area of Missouri River and from the fact 
that there are salt deposits in the drainage area of Kaw River, that the 
amount of chlorine found in Missouri River at Fort Beliefontaine can 
not be used as an index of pollution, although part of it may have been 
derived from sewage pollution, because the effect of the chlorine from 
the salt deposits would interfere with interpretations relating to sew¬ 
age pollution alone. (2090-2091.) 

With reference to the role played by microscopic organisms in the 
purification of waters, the witness stated that there was practically 
no knowledge on the subject. These organisms might perhaps exert 
some influence on bacteria, but the information was not very definite. 


( 2101 .) 


100 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The cross-examiner then referred to the testimony of the witness in 
which he expressed the opinion that the Synedra pul dull a variety sub- 
prolongata found in the water of Illinois and Mississippi rivers was 
probably derived from Lake Michigan, and endeavored to draw from 
him a statement as to his reasons for this opinion. The witness ad¬ 
mitted that this organism could exist in the ponds and lakes along the 
lower reaches of Illinois River. The following question and answer 
are given substantially as they appear in the record: 


Q. Assume that the relative amount of water now discharged from the drainage 
canal into Illinois River is greater than that naturally flowing in that river, and further 
assume that the number of Synedra and Tabellaria per cubic centimeter in the waters of 
Lake Michigan and in the waters of the Illinois River lakes and tributary streams are 
exactly equal; that in ^11 physical respects the organisms from both sources have equal 
vitality when they start from their habitat on a journey to the St. Louis intake; that the 
ones from Lake Michigan have to pass through the drainage canal; and finally, that 
these microscopic organisms are found in the water at the St. Louis intake. Elimina¬ 
ting all other considerations than those above mentioned, to which source would you 
prefer to attribute them? 

A. If we have a certain volume of water contributed by the tributaries of Illinois 
River and the assumed lakes which contain a certain number of these organisms, and 
if we have a greater volume of water through the Chicago drainage canal which contains 
per cubic centimeter an equal number of these organisms, and assuming a thorough 
mixing of the waters from both sources, it would be my judgment that these organisms 
would come from both sources, but that more of them would come from the water which 
was greatest in volume, provided the two waters contain an equal number per cubic 
centimeter. The fact that the organisms from Lake Michigan had traveled through 
24 miles of sewage would be of no practical significance. (2104-2106.) 


The witness stated that if bacilli naturally inhabiting running water 
should be removed, developed by special culture, put in bottles of 
sterilized water, and hung out in the sun, the determination of their 
longevity under such conditions would not enable us to tell how long 
they would live in natural water or give any definite information on 
that point, although it might guide in an opinion as to how long tliev 
might live. (2111-2112.) 

With reference to the longevity of Bacillus prodigiosus, it was the 
opinion of the witness that if a stream were infected with a large 
culture the numbers of the bacteria would probably decrease, but 
just how rapidly he was not prepared to say. If a 40-gallon barrel 
full of Bacillus prodigiosus culture were dumped into Illinois River at 
or near its mouth in August, 1900, and if in November of the follow¬ 
ing year 107 barrels full of the same culture were discharged into the 
drainage canal near Lockport, and after this latter discharge a colony 
of these bacilli were found at the intake of the St. Louis waterworks 
and another at some point in the distribution system of the city, the 


witness would naturally assume it to be more reasonable to consider 
that these colonies were derived from the second discharge, if they 
came from either, because during the interval between August, 1900, 
and November, 1901, all of the water in Illinois and Mississippi 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE C. WHIPPLE. 


101 


rivers between the point where the first dose was added and the 
intake of the St. Louis waterworks would have passed downstream, 
and many, if not all, of the bacilli would have died in that time. 
Therefore it was not likely that the B. prodigiosus found in St. Louis 
in 1901 were derived from the culture discharged into Illinois River 
in August, 1900. (2112-2114.) 

The importance to be attached to the numerical results of a single 
bacteriological examination of water was discussed by the witness, 
who stated that if the number of bacteria was extremely low it might 
indicate a comparatively good sanitary condition; if extremely high 
it might indicate the reverse, but if the number was intermediate no 
conclusions coidd be drawn from that alone. In order to obtain the 
most accurate result the bacteriological examination of a sample 
should be begun immediately after its collection, though the charac¬ 
ter of the water would to a considerable extent determine this point. 
A water containing comparatively little food for bacteria might be 
allowed to stand longer before the bacteriological examination than a 
water rich in organic matter, and the result of the examination would 
not be seriously affected. (2120-2122.) 

The witness expressed the opinion that investigators had not ascer¬ 
tained by any experiments the probable duration of pathogenic 
germs, such as the typhoid-fever bacillus, in running water. In gen¬ 
eral, experiments such as had been made under laboratory conditions 
would be less favorable to such bacteria than natural conditions. Of 
course, it must be considered that circumstances alter cases, but in 
verv general terms he believed this statement to be true. lie was 
referred by the cross-examiner to page 294 of a work entitled “Micro¬ 
organisms in water,” by Percy and G. C. Frankland, in which the 
results of experiments made by Krans with unsterilized waters were 
cited. On this page the statement was made that the typhoid bacilli 
had disappeared or were no longer demonstrable when the water 
bacteria became active. The witness stated that he was of the 
opinion that no such assertion could be warranted, because the iden¬ 
tification of the typhoid bacillus in the presence of common water 
bacteria is extremely difficult and in most instances impossible. The 
details of the report were then enumerated, namely, that the water, 
taken from the Munich supply, contained on the first day 57,960 
typhoid bacilli; on the second day, 50,400; on the third day, 15,680; 
on the fifth day, 9,000, and on the seventh day none, while there were 
no ordinary water bacteria on the first, second, and third days, 80 on 
the fifth day, 288,000 on the seventh day, 400,000 on the ninth day, 
and 970,000 on the twentieth day. In regard to these results, the 
witness stated that it was no wonder that the investigate] did not 
find the typhoid bacilli in the samples at the end of the seventh, ninth, 
or tenth days, because he believed it a bacteriological impossibility to 


102 POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

demonstrate the presence of typhoid germs under such circumstances, 
and he would question whether the results obtained would actually 
stand the test of present-day methods. The subject has been very 
carefully considered, and the poverty of the results shows the difficul¬ 
ties encountered. (2131-2133.) 

The cross-examiner then cited two series of results given in the 
work above mentioned. The first referred to the river Spree. The 
water of this river passes through Berlin and receives the city sewage. 
A few miles below Berlin the river widens into a fairly quiescent 
body of water known as Havre Lake. The results show that the 
water leaving Havre Lake had become purified from the effects of 
Berlin sewage to such an extent that its condition, as shown by the 
analytical results, was practically the same as above Berlin. The 
second case was that of the river Limmat, flowing out of Lake Zurich. 
The number of micro-organisms in the water as it leaves the lake 
varies from 100 to 200 per cubic centimeter. This number is increased 
enormously by the inflow of sewage from the city of Zurich; but at% 
point about 6 miles below, the bacterial condition approaches that of 
the water as it leaves the lake. The cross-examiner then asked 
whether, in view of these two instances, on the assumption that the 
conditions are truly stated, it was not highly probable that the water 
of Illinois River above Peoria, a distance of over 100 miles from 
Chicago, would have attained a bacteriological condition similar to 
that which it had before it received the Chicago sewage. The wit¬ 
ness stated that the results cited would not be of any material value 
in estimating what the bacteriological conditions would be at Peoria, 
but that the experiments made seemed to he in line with what is 
generally known in regard to the decrease in the total number of 
bacteria in streams below points at which pollution is introduced. 
It is quite conceivable that the conditions in Illinois River between 
the Chicago drainage canal and Peoria are such that the total number 
of bacteria at the latter point might be as low or even lower than in 
the water of Lake Michigan; but in taking this into consideration the 
character of the bacteria at Peoria must be considered. The proba¬ 
bility is that pathogenic germs would decrease in transit, as well as 
the water bacteria; but whether they would decrease in exactly the 
same proportion the witness was not able to state. It is conceivable 
that there might he a greater decrease in the pathogenic germs than 
in the ordinary water bacteria, but that would depend on the char¬ 
acter of the water bacteria and the conditions of the water. It 
should 1*3 remembered that even the water bacteria are not at all 
times multiplying. They are sometimes dying, and certain forms of 
the water bacteria might die at even a greater rate than the typhoid 
bacilli under such conditions. If we neglect all other considerations, 
such as sedimentation, etc., and consider only the fact that typhoid 


TESTIMONY OF ALLEN HAZEN. 


103 


bacilli do not multiply in water, while water bacteria will multiply 
under the conditions presumed, it is not probable that the typhoid 
bacilli would remain alive in water as long as the water bacilli; but 
in practice, it would not do to neglect all other considerations in study¬ 
ing a problem of this character. (2133-2138.) 

The witness then stated that the reason why cities having a popu¬ 
lation of 4,000 or over were often considered in estimates as having a 
polluting influence on the water of a river, while those of a smaller 
population were not so considered, was that this limit furnishes, on 
the whole, a better means of comparing the effect of human life on 
different drainage areas than to take the total population. The 
reason for this was that throughout the country, communities of 4,000 
population or over are more commonly provided with a public water 
supply than those having less than 4,000. The witness admitted 
that this is an arbitrary distinction, but claimed that, taken broadly 
all over the country, it is a fair one. It is true that rural pollution 
may be washed from barnyards and feeding pens by rains into a 
river, but such added pollution has no real effect, because there is at 
the same time an enormous dilution, so that the result mav not be* 
different from that which would occur under normal conditions with 
a constant pollution of the stream by a sewer, for example. (2145- 
2147.) 

ALLEN HAZEN. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Allen Ilazen was called as a witness in behalf of the complainant. 
In qualifying as an expert on water supplies, Mr. Hazen stated that 
he was educated at the public schools of Hartford, Vt., at the New 
Hampshire State College, the Thayer School of Civil Engineering, 
Hanover, N. IT, and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 
and later, for one term, at the technical school in Dresden, Germany. 
He further testified that he had.made a special study of the chemistry 
of water supplies; that for a number of years he was in direct charge 
of the experiment station of the Massachusetts State board of health 
at Lawrence, with the title of chemist; that he had twice visited 
Europe and studied the water supplies and sewerage systems of most 
of the large cities there; that he was in charge of the sewage-disposal 
plants and the inspection of drinking waters at the world’s fair at 
Chicago at 1893; and that he was at one time a member of the firm of 
Noyes & Hazen, of Boston, who gave special attention to water supply 
and sewerage problems. He advised the city of Albany, N. T., on 
the subject of its water supply and later superintended the construc¬ 
tion of sand filters there; was then building a filter for the city of 
Ithaca, N. Y., and had been engaged in similar work for Harrisburg, 
Pittsburg, Chester, and Lancaster, Pa.; West Superior, Wis.; Water- 
town and Yonkers, N. Y.; Providence, R. I.; Washington, D. C.; 


104 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Trenton, N. J.; Toledo, Ohio; Grand Rapids, Mich., and Millbury, 
Mass.; and for a few years acted as consulting engineer for the Ohio 
State board of health. In 1891 the witness visited Chicago and ex¬ 
amined its waterworks and sewerage systems, becoming generally 
familiar with the conditions existing at the time. In 1892 he pub¬ 
lished jointly with Professor Sedgwick a paper on the water supply 
and typhoid fever in Chicago. In 1893, with Doctor Reynolds, 
health commissioner of Chicago, he wrote a joint paper on the water 
supply of Chicago, which was read before the American Public Health 
Association. The following year he wrote a report on the drinking 
water used at Jackson Park during the world’s fair. He was a mem¬ 
ber of the commission appointed in 1901, consisting besides himself 
of Messrs. Williams and Wisner, to report on an improved water 
supply for St. Louis. He then examined thoroughly the water sys¬ 
tem of the city and the whole drainage area. (2789-2798.) 

The witness stated that he believed that the quality of the water at 
the St. Louis intake was seriously damaged by the sewage of Chicago, 
and based this view on the facts that the amount of sewage entering 
the watercourses above the intake has been nearly doubled by this 
discharge; that the distance between Chicago and St. Louis is very 
considerably less than the average distance of the other points of 
pollution from the St. Louis intake; that the mixing of the waters in 
the channel of the Mississippi is such that the amount of sewage 
received at the intake is a large percentage of what it would be if the 
mixing were complete; and that the time of passage from the point 
of pollution to the intake is not sufficient to allow the complete 
destruction of the injurious and polluting matters discharged. In 
view of these facts the witness believed that the discharge of the sew¬ 
age of Chicago into Mississippi River by way of the drainage canal, 
Desplaines River, and Illinois River u seriously injures the quality 
of the water.” (2799-2802.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The witness gave evidence of thorough familiarity with the water- 
supply system of the city of St. Louis and the conditions of the Illi¬ 
nois, Mississippi, and Missouri river basins above the intake, with 
reference to their population, the pollution of the rivers, and the degree 
of mixing which takes place, such familiarity arising from his work 
as commissioner in 1901. In connection with this work he had exam¬ 
ined the waterworks plants at Kansas City, St. Joseph, and Omaha, 
on Missouri River, and taken into consideration the discharge of 
sewage into the stream from these cities. He finally stated that he 
did not consider Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks a fit source of 
supply nor would the water be safe for drinking even though the 
pollution brought in by the Illinois were eliminated. The cities 


TESTIMONY OF ALLEN HAZEN. 


105 


lying along Missouri and Mississippi rivers above St. Louis discharge 
sufficient polluting material to render the use of the water without 
previous purification dangerous. (2809-2813). 

In explanation of the comparative statements concerning the safety 
of water which he had made, the witness said that some waters are so 
polluted that they cause the death of more than one person per thou¬ 
sand per annum from typhoid fever; in fact, sometimes as many as 
four or five persons; such water is extremely bad, and probably as 
bad as is used anywhere in the United States. Waters that are less 
polluted than this produce smaller amounts of sickness and death. 
It is difficult to draw the line absolutely and it may be a question 
whether even the best waters are absolutely free from suspicion of 
causing typhoid. But when a water causes so little sickness that it 
can not be traced and measured, it is classed as a good water, so that 
the various degrees of acceptability are merely relative, depending on 
the effect of the water on the persons using it habitually as a beverage; 
no sharp line of demarkation can be drawn. (2814.) 

The witness stated that the diversion of Chicago sewage from the 
lake and into the drainage canal would undoubtedly greatly improve 
the Chicago water supply, but that he was of the opinion that it 
would not render it absolutely safe, because the shipping is a source 
of considerable pollution. The matter discharged from vessels enter¬ 
ing and leaving Chicago is undoubtedly a menace to the purity of the 
water supply, but just how important a menace the witness was not 
prepared to say. (2817-2819.) 

The dilution of Chicago sewage by the large influx of Lake Michi¬ 
gan water, according to the witness, would not mitigate the danger 
to St. Louis. Such dilution would have some effect on the sewage, 
but its effect on the specific germs of disease would be doubtful, and 
these germs, after all, are the real sources of danger. In discussing 
the various factors in the self-purification of streams, the witness 
stated that sedimentation is a mere transference of some of the 
polluting matters from the moving water to the bottom of the stream. 
He would not call that purification, because such sewage matter is 
liable to be taken up again and transported. If the water alone is 
considered it is purification, but in a broad view of the whole subject 
it is not. (2824-2825.) 

The witness stated that no definite length of time could be set 
during which it would be necessary for such sewage to he upon the 
bottom of a stream in order to become noninjurious, but that in the 
Millbury case he was confronted by the proposition, backed up by 
eminent experts, that the trouble was due to sewage mud which had 
been deposited several years previously. (2827.) 

With reference to the function of analytical work in showing the 
potability of water, the witness stated that chemical analyses never 


106 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


show infection; they can only show pollution, from which infection 
can sometimes be inferred. The bacteriological examination may 
possibly show the presence of infectious matter, but the difficulty of 
finding it, even when it is known to be present, is so great that it is 
very seldom found. (2837.) 

The witness was then questioned concerning the relative importance 
of cases and of deaths as an index of the amount of typhoid fever 
present, replying that if, as stated, the number of deaths from typhoid 
fever at St. Louis were 168 in 1900, 198 in 1901, and 222 in 1902, and 
the total number of cases reported were for the same years 1,213, 
1,101, and 1,112, respectively, he would give greater weight to the 
deaths than to the cases in considering the amount of typhoid in the 
city. He believed that under the conditions prevailing in American 
cities the number of deaths from typhoid is a more accurate measure 
of the typhoid than the number of cases, because the deaths are 
more accurately and carefully reported. The above record, if true, 
would indicate that the disease was occurring with greater severity, 
and this might reasonably be called an increase in the typhoid con¬ 
dition. (2838-2841.) 

In answer to questions as to the amount of mixing which occurs 
at the junction of the Missouri and the Mississippi, Mr. Hazen stated 
that from analyses which he had seen it was his belief that the water 
received at the St. Louis intake contained 30 per cent of Mississippi 
River water. He could not state how much of this water came from 
the Illinois, but was of the opinion that the mixing of the Illinois and 
the Mississippi waters was, owing to the nature of the channel, fairly 
complete. (2844-2847.) 

WILLIAM THOMPSON SEDGWICK. 


DIRECT EXAMINATION. 


William Thompson Sedgwick,-called as a witness on behalf of the 
complainant, qualified as an expert by stating that he graduated at 
Sheffield Scientific School, Yale University, in 1877; studied for the 
greater part of two years at Yale Medical School; taught physio¬ 
logical chemistry at Yale for one year, and then became fellow, assist¬ 
ant, and associate at Johns Hopkins University; since 1883 had been 
assistant professor, associate professor, and professor in the Mas¬ 
sachusetts Institute of Technology; received the degree of doctor of 
philosophy at Johns Hopkins in 1881; served as biologist to the State 
board of health of Massachusetts from 1888 to 1896; is a member of 


the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Massachusetts Asso¬ 
ciation of Boards of Health, New England Waterworks Association, 
Society of American Bacteriologists, American Society of Naturalists, 
American Public Health Association, and of the advisory board of 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


107 


the hygienic laboratory of the United States Public Health and 
Marine-Hospital Service; past president of the American Society of 
Naturalists and of the Society of American Bacteriologists; has been 
employed by various cities and towns as an expert in water supply 
and sewage disposal, especially by Burlington, Yt., Pittsburg, Pa., 
and Lowell, Mass.; is the author of a text-book on general biology 
and of a treatise on the principles of sanitary science and the public 
health; has made numerous reports and investigations of epidemics 


of typhoid fever for the State board of health of Massachusetts and a 
report on typhoid fever in Pittsburg in 1898; has published numer¬ 
ous papers on water supply, water purification, and sewage purifica¬ 
tion; and in 1892, in collaboration with Allen Hazen, published a 
paper on typhoid fever in Chicago. (2184-2185.) 

The witness then made certain general statements concerning the 
Chicago water supply and methods of sewage disposal, and stated 
that he was familiar with conditions prevailing in the Illinois River 
basin along the Mississippi above St. Louis and in general through¬ 
out the drainage basin of Missouri River. He defined ordinary pol¬ 
lution as a condition in which the water contains organic matter, or 
even filth, from whatever source and in whatever degree of putre¬ 
faction, without the presence of the specific germs of any disease; 
the term infectious pollution refers to water containing germs of dis¬ 
ease, without reference to the amount of putrescible organic matter 
or any physical condition whatever. A water polluted with organic 
wastes, however bad it may appear, is not, in general, dangerous to 
public health if it does not contain the specific germs of a water-borne 
disease; on the other hand, a water that is perfectly clear and accept¬ 
able from a physical standpoint may be dangerous to public health 
by reason of the presence of disease germs. (2187-2190.) 

Mere dilution does not destroy or eliminate infectious pollution. 
Under dilution alone, the sewage turned into Illinois River from the 
sanitary district of Chicago would not be rendered safe and pure by 
the time it reached Peoria. In this whole matter of self-purification 
of streams the ideas of to-day are very different from those of twenty 
or thirty years ago. Running water under some conditions might 
purify itself from infectious germs, but those conditions would be so 
unusual as to be virtually theoretical. Experts have abandoned the 
old belief that running water readdy purifies itself. Acting on that 
belief, which was the result of the best knowledge available twenty or 
thirty years ago, numerous cities and towns of the United States 
installed waterworks with intakes in streams into which sewage had 
been poured at points above. That was the best art of the time, and 
engineers, chemists, and sanitarians agreed about it. The city of 
Pittsburg, for example, introduced a water supply from Allegheny 
River with the confident belief that such sewage as might find its way 


108 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


into that river at points above would be effectually removed before 
the water came to the citizens. That belief has been found to be 
erroneous. Pittsburg suffers to-day with typhoid fever perhaps more 
than any other city of the United States. The cities on the lakes— 
Niagara Falls, Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, Chicago, Milwaukee, 
Duluth—take water supplies exposed to contamination by sewage, 
and are to-day, one after another, considering at any rate the possi¬ 
bility of abandoning such supplies, because of the failure of the self- 
purification of sewage. Nevertheless, there is a large measure of 
self-purification of streams. The subject is complex and difficult, 
and the tendency of opinion has been to increase distrust in the 
efficiency of self-purification of water or sewage. (2191-2192.) 

In reply to specific questions concerning the effect of the discharge 
of Chicago sewage from the drainage canal, the witness stated that 
such discharge at once throws suspicion on the character of the water 
in Illinois River and undoubtedly affects the entire wa ; er-supply 
value of the stream and that of the Mississippi at the St. Louis water¬ 
works, rendering the water dangerous for drinking purposes and more 
liable to carry germs of typhoid fever. (2193-2195.) 

The addition to the flow of Illinois River of the water from the Chi¬ 
cago drainage canal, equivalent to about five-sixths of the minimum 
flow of said river, will quicken the flow in the channel and thereby 
hinder effective sedimentation by shortening the time required for 
infectious germs to pass through the river, and, by interfering with 
their detention, will aggravate the danger of their arrival at the mouth 
of the river. The witness laid especial stress on the statement that 
any factor which results in quickening the flow of the stream is of 
grave importance. The time, more than the distance, is the basis of 
self-purification in streams. Other things being equal, the rate of 
sedimentation is quicker in a turbid water than in a clear water. An 
addition of clear water, like that from Lake Michigan, to the water of 
Illinois River will serve to retard sedimentation. Therefore these two 
factors—namely, the quickening of stream flow by the addition of a 
large quantity of water and the partial clarification of the river due to 
the fact that this water added from Lake Michigan is clear—undoubt¬ 
edly have the effect of increasing typhoid fever in St. Louis. (2195- 
2196.) 

The witness stated that the matter deposited in the bed of a running 
stream may lie there for some time or may be swept out by an increase 
in the velocity of the stream. In case it is allowed to remain for some 
time, it may be more or less modified by chemical and bacterial action. 
If it is swept from the bottom of the stream by an increase in t he veloc¬ 
ity, it may be redeposited at lower points or pass into some other body 
of water. In regard to the longevity of typhoid as a general proposi¬ 
tion in connection with sewage-polluted water, to speak broadly, 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


109 


recent observations have indicated a greater longevity than was for¬ 
merly supposed. Practical experience has shown that in a sewage- 
polluted stream typhoid germs may live in gradually diminishing num¬ 
bers for weeks or months, or even years. Continuing, the witness 
stated that even if the number of colon bacilli, as shown by actual 
tests, was no higher subsequent to the opening of the canal than pre¬ 
viously, it does not indicate that the water is not more dangerous for 
drinking purposes. The mere fact that a vast additional population 
is contributing sewage to Illinois River must always constitute an 
added menace to the health of the persons using the waters of the river 
at its mouth or below. Bacteriological examinations are, in the 
•opinion of the witness, not absolute guides as to the sanitary condi¬ 
tion of water, because they obviously can not be made at every 
moment or at all times or at all seasons or hours of the day, and there¬ 
fore there might be intervals between times of sampling when infec¬ 
tious materials would flow by and thus escape analysis, but neverthe¬ 
less would pass on and do harm to the people using the water below. 
(2197-2198.) 

If typhoid-fever germs coming from Chicago sewage are deposited 
in large numbers in the lakes and slack-water portions of Illinois River 
above Peoria, in event of flood conditions the water leaving these 
lakes might contain more infectious and dangerous pollution than the 
sewage entering Desplaines River at the Bear Trap dam, because a 
large amount of typhoid fever in Chicago might result in the storage 
of vast numbers of these germs in the slack-water basins, and a sudden 
flood would sweep out this accumulation, so that sometimes more 
typhoid-fever germs would be flowing in Illinois River than in the 
drainage canal itself. The witness then mentioned the case of the 
city of Detroit, where the removal of deposits of sewage matter had 
resulted in a typhoid-fever epidemic. The dredging of Black River 
at Port Huron caused the carriage of detached sediment down St. 
Clair River, through St. Clair Lake, and into the intake of the Detroit 
waterworks. (2198-2199.) 

Continuing* the witness expressed the opinion that the water of 
Illinois River as it enters the Mississippi can not be used with safety 
for drinking purposes. Assuming that the only pollution of the Illi¬ 
nois is contributed to it by the Chicago sanitary district, he was 
emphatically of the opinion that the effects of time interval, dilution, 
and sedimentation between Chicago and Grafton would not be suffi¬ 
cient to render the water as it enters the Mississippi at all times free 
from disease-producing elements. In support of this contention he 
cited the Lowell epidemic, in which the large body of water in Merri- 
mac River was contaminated by a small amount of water in Stony 
Brook, and compared the conditions as to volume and size of the 
rivers under consideration. (2199-2201.) 


110 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness stated that for fifteen years prior to 1900 the typhoid 
death rate of St. Louis was not in general greater than that of many 
cities provided with purer water supplies. During the period follow¬ 
ing the removal of the water intake from Bissells Point to Chain of 
Rocks, the typhoid death rate in the city had been remarkably good— 
lower in fact, than the rate for the same period in Boston, which has 
a good water supply and a reasonably normal incidence of the disease. 
Since January 1,1900, there lias been a marked annual increase in the 
typhoid rate of St. Louis, which has been higher than at any time in 
its own history since 1885, and very much higher than the Boston 
rate, with which it previously compared favorably. The increase in 
the number of deaths from typhoid fever in St. Louis between January 
1, 1900, and the date of the testimony, over the number of deaths 
from the same disease in the previous fifteen years, excluding one 
year (1892) in which there was a great epidemic due to the causes 
specifier! in the testimony of Doctor Ravold, has been about 26 per 
cent, while the increase since January 1, 1900, in annual mortality 
from typhoid over that for the preceding five }^ears, was 73 per cent. 
Before 1900 the typhoid death rates of St. Louis and of Boston were 
below those of most cities having polluted water supplies. New 
York has the lowest death rate from typhoid fever; Boston and St. 
Louis ran very closely together until January 1, 1900, since which 
time Boston has gone lower and St. Louis increased; Philadelphia 
shows a much higher death rate than Boston and St. Louis, while 
Chicago has the worst record of all. (2202-2203.) 

Professor Sedgwick referred to the experiment made with 107 
barrels of Bacillus prodigiosus culture, which were emptied into the 
Chicago drainage canal at Lemont, the germs, as reported, having been 
identified in the water entering the St. Louis intake at Chain of Rocks, 
and stated that this interesting and valuable experiment seems to 
show that typhoid fever or Asiatic cholera germs might pass from the 
drainage canal and finally enter the water supply of St. Louis by way 
of Illinois and Mississippi rivers. (2204-2205.) 

On being questioned with reference to instances in which typhoid- 
fever epidemics have been conveyed by surface waters, the witness 
gave a brief summary of several prominent cases. 

A celebrated and important epidemic occurred at Plymouth, Pa., in 
1885. On the drainage area supplying the town four storage reser¬ 
voirs had been built, and on the bank of the stream which supplied 
the uppermost of these reservoirs a case of typhoid fever appeared in 
the early spring of 1885. The reservoirs had all been drawn very low 
to supply the demands of a continued season of cold weather, and on 
the arrival of the spring thaw 1,200 cases of typhoid fever broke out 
in this little town of 8,000 inhabitants. These were traced—correctly 
it is believed by sanitarians—to the occurrence of one case of typhoid 


TESTIMONY OE WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


Ill 


fever on the bank of the uppermost reservoir, followed during the 
thaw by the washing in of the dejecta of that patient and, in the low 
state of the reservoirs, the rapid transmission of the germs to the 
people of the town. (2205-2206.) 

In 1890 there was an epidemic at Lowell, Mass., followed very soon 
after by a worse one at Lawrence, 9 miles below on the Merrimac. 
These were traced to infection which began on Stony Brook, and of 
course the Lawrence sickness was caused largely by the typhoid-fever 
germs in the sewage of Lowell, the larger city above it. (2206.) 

Two years after, in 1892, the witness investigated a very interesting 
epidemic at the mouth of the same river, in Newburyport. The 
people of the city supposed that they were drinking spring water, but 
the superintendent of the waterworks had surreptitiously connected 
the mains with the Merrimac, and for two or three months the people 
were getting, as he himself admitted, Merrimac River water. This 
was particularly instructive because for the first two months, say, of this 
time there was no typhoid in Newburyport. On going up the river 
the witness found the reason to be that although they had been drink¬ 
ing simple filth—good straight sewage—it was apparently uninfected. 
Unluckily, however, a little epidemic broke out in Lowell, the result 
of which was perfectly obvious in Lawrence, although the water had 
to travel 9 miles and pass through a storage reservoir where it had 
been detained for at least a week. This infected water reached New¬ 
buryport, at a distance of 20 or 30 miles, and it was one of the saddest 
cases ever investigated, because the people supposed that they were 
drinking spring water, while they were in fact drinking infected 
sewage. (2206-2207.) 

The rivers pollution commission of Great Britain, in a report pub¬ 
lished in 1874, states that there is no river in the United Kingdom 
long enough to purify itself from any sewage admitted to it even at its 
source. That stands as one of the axioms of sanitary science to-day. 
(2207.) 

In 1898 the witness made a special study of typhoid fever in Pitts¬ 
burg. Acting on the advice of one of the most eminent engineers of 
the time, the city had introduced a water supply drawn mainly from 
Allegheny River and partly from the Monongahela. The important 
points of pollution lie at considerable distances above Pittsburg, but 
as the Allegheny is a swift stream the infectious material is borne 
down in a comparatively fresh state. As a result of the study, a 
filtration plant was recommended for the Pittsburg water supply, for 
the reason that infectious materials might he brought to the intake 
from points as far distant as Oil City 113 mdes or more. (2208.) 

Another very serious epidemic due to pollution on the drainage area 
of a public water supply occurred at New Haven, Conn., in 1900. The 
city gets a part of its water supply from a sparsely inhabited drain¬ 
age basin. The large storage reservoirs had been drawn low during 


112 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


severe winter weather, and when the spring thaw and heavy rains 
came some feces from a house on the basin where there had been a 
very few cases of typhoid fever were washed down into one of these res¬ 
ervoirs. The result was that the infected water passed quickly to the 
city and there were 470 cases of typhoid fever in the spring—not in 
the fall, when typhoid in communities generally occurs. (2209.) 

The recent epidemic at Ithaca, N. Y., arose from conditions very 
similar to those at Plymouth and New Haven. It was a serious epi¬ 
demic of about 1,000 cases, with a high death rate. (2209-2210.) 

The witness then referred to typhoid fever in Chicago and to the 
conditions at Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, and Niagara Falls. He 
had found in Buffalo a prevailing feeling among medical men that the 
time was at hand when the city must purify her water because of the 
pollution discharged into the lake at Cleveland and higher points. 
Niagara Falls was suffering severely from typhoid fever, which the 
local physicians believed to be derived from sewage that had run 
down Niagara River from Buffalo and higher points. It is a question 
whether the people who are using the Great Lakes as a water supply 
must not give them up after a while. The growth of opinion is more 
and more toward the idea that it will not do to trust to self-purifica¬ 
tion. It used to be thought that running water when it became thor¬ 
oughly aerated was pure, especially if it came from long distances. 
That was the theory on which Pittsburg put in its waterworks and 
on which Lowell took the obviously sewage-polluted water of the Mer- 
rimac and used it for water-supply purposes; but these cities and all 
others that have trusted to that theory have been typhoid ridden. 
It is not to-day so much a question of distance as of time during which 
the germs may settle out or die; in other words, it is a matter of qui¬ 
escence. “You have got to eliminate all idea of distance from these 
things and bring in the question of time largely, and that is what I 
have stated in my treatise on sanitary science and public health, writ¬ 
ten two or three years ago. It is nothing that 1 have got up for this 
case; * * * it is a fact that is borne in upon me by long expe¬ 

rience, and I believe that in that respect I stand entirely square with 
the sanitarians of the world. At any rate, I hold that opinion my¬ 
self” (2210-2212.) 

An increased amount of infectious pollution has no effect on the 
time needed for purification, but the degree of danger is increased. 
One microbe coming down from Chicago and resting in the slack 
water of the Illinois would certainly die if it lay there long enough; 
but if a million came down, the chances are that some might be carried 
on by a freshet before they died and the danger would be greatly 
enhanced. Other things being equal, the greater the amount of 
infection the more serious the danger. (2212.) 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 113 

The aeration received by the water flowing over Niagara Falls does 
not change the amount of pollution which the river contains. The 
late Prof. Albert R. Leeds repeatedly analyzed the water both above 
and below the falls and found.it to be in exactly the same condition 
in each place. (2212-2213.) 

The witness stated that after a careful consideration of the whole 
subject, including the typhoid-fever conditions in the sanitary dis¬ 
trict of Chicago, the sewer outfalls, the amount of sewage, and exist¬ 
ing conditions in Desplaines, Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers, 
he believed that beyond a reasonable doubt the principal portion of 
the increase of typhoid fever in St. Louis since January 1, 1900, had 
been due to the pollution of the water of St. Louis by the Chicago 
sewage. The typhoid rate of St. Louis from 1895 to 1899, inclusive, 
compared very favorably with the rate in Lowell and Lawrence, Mass., 
after the introduction of pure-water supplies at these two places. 
(2213-2215.) 

In reply to the question whether or not the Illinois River water con¬ 
taining mixed sewage and canal water from the Chicago sanitary dis¬ 
trict had been rendered less safe since the opening of the drainage 
canal than before, the witness testified substantially as follows: 

In the first place we must consider the matter of dilution. The 
addition of an amount of lake water equal to 5,000 cubic feet per 
second at Lockport. unquestionably dilutes the Chicago sewage and 
Chicago River is clearer and better than it was before. At the same 
time it must be borne in mind that the water thus used for purposes 
of dilution is not the unpolluted water of Lake Michigan. It is drawn 
chiefly from the mouth of Chicago River and vicinity and has long 
been known to be polluted more or less. The problem then in part 
resolves itself into this question: “Does the dilution of a presumably 
infected sewage by a presumably often infected water contribute to the 
purity of Illinois River?” The infectious materials that were for¬ 
merly put into Chicago River are now carried with comparative swift¬ 
ness down the drainage canal and into Desplaines and Illinois rivers. 
We have then to consider whether sewage as described, carried quickly 
and in considerable volume into Illinois River, does or does not render 
that river safer than before. The belief of the witness, based on the 
effect of time as a purifying factor, was that it is at least very doubt¬ 
ful whether the pouring of the Chicago sewage into Illinois River does 
at any time improve that river. This opinion was strengthened by 
considering the larger amount of sewage now delivered, the oppor¬ 
tunities for sedimentation, the susceptibility of Illinois River to fresh¬ 
ets, and the changed conditions brought about by the introduction of 
this fresher sewage with a larger volume of water. Undoubtedly at 


ikr 194—07-8 



114 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


times the dilute sewage may have improved the appearance of the river 
water and may seem to have improved its quality; but if the condition 
throughout the year, at all times and seasons is considered, it is doubt¬ 
ful whether such improvement has taken place. (2216-2217.) 

The witness believes that the danger to St. Louis is practically 
constant, inasmuch as it can never be known at what moment 
infectious material may arrive from the sewers of Chicago. It is 
not supposed that such material is arriving even 7 minute or every 
hour, but no one can ever know when it may come. The danger is 
believed to be immediate in the sense that it is urgent and serious, 
and it is impending by reason of the fact that it is hanging over 
the citizens of Missouri on the shore of Mississippi River all the time. 
It is as if ever since the opening of the drainage canal there had been 
located on the drainage area of the Mississippi a big additional city, 
notorious for its t} 7 phoid epidemics and its high typhoid death rate, 
and as if the placing of that city virtually on the Mississippi basin 
had introduced a new element into the life and welfare of the people 
on the river below. It is no trifling matter to take on a city of that 
size and add its sewage to a stream already sewage polluted. The 
danger line must by that addition be reached sooner by those who 


use the water, and it is for that reason that the danger is regarded 
as impending, immediate, aggravated, and continuous. (2217-2218.) 

Dams undoubtedly favor purification so far as they produce slack 
water or quiescence, but if the sediment or sludge is allowed to 
remain on tjie stream bed, the chances are good that in freshets it 
may be returned to the current, travel with it, and produce trouble 
below. The witness cited as an example the Merrimac, which is 
often in dry seasons a series of mill ponds in which sedimentation 
goes on, but in the event of a thunder shower or any sudden pre¬ 
cipitation sufficient to upset the stream it begins to rise, scouring 
takes place, and trouble may ensue, as was the case at Newburyport. 
Epidemics at Lowell and Lawrence have generally followed freshets 
in the river. It is a general principle that dams are* useful, but not 
sufficient to bring about complete purification. (2218-2220.) 

The witness stated that the rate of growth in population of the 
Chicago sanitary district exceeds that of any other area in the Mis¬ 
sissippi basin. The growth in rural population in this basin during 
the years 1890-1901 was less than 1 per cent, that in the urban popu¬ 


lation outside the sanitary district of Chicago was 28.2 per cent, 
and that of the city of Chicago was 54.4 per cent. Such a growth 
in the city population, accompanied by a corresponding dilution of 
its sewage through the drainage canal, must obviously quicken the 
flow of Illinois River and bring the infectious materials more rapidly 
to the people of Missouri. It is as if Chicago should be gradually 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


115 


moved toward St. Louis. The larger Chicago gets, the nearer it 
practically comes. It is of interest not only to St. Louis and to 
Missouri, but to Illinois and to cities and towns that are bound to 
grow ii]) in the Illinois valley, that if Asiatic cholera or any other 
disease capable of being water borne should appear in a Chicago 
five times as big as the present city, it would be a menace to the 
welfare of the inhabitants of these places lower in the valley very 
much greater in proportion than the existing danger. Even if 
Chicago should purify her water supply and reduce her typhoid- 
fever death rates, the mere existence of this large number of beings 
pouring their sewage down the Mississippi Valley, no matter how 
good their general sanitary conditions might be, would be a very 
serious item in the welfare of these places, because epidemics some¬ 
times appear even in communities having good water supply and 
good sanitary conditions. (2220-2223.) 

In reply to specific questions, the witness stated that the con¬ 
struction of the Chicago drainage canal had added to the sewage-pro¬ 
ducing population tributary to Mississippi River above the St. Louis 
water intake a number equal to about 63 per cent. Only munici¬ 
palities having 4,000 inhabitants or more being considered, the 
population tributary to Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers, 
exclusive of the sanitary district of Chicago, was 2,695,782, dis¬ 
tributed as follows: Missouri River, 1,090,832; Mississippi River 
above the mouth of the Illinois, 1,219,645; Illinois River, 385,305. 
(2235-2236.) 

The witness then stated that there were well-known cases where 
settling basins holding suspected water for long periods had failed 
to protect the people from typhoid fever. At Covington, Ky., the 
water of Ohio River, more or less polluted, is kept at times as long 
as thirty-two days, and yet Covington suffers severely from typhoid 
fever, due apparently to infected water. At New Albany, Inch, 
the storage is about a month in the sedimentation basin, and here 
also typhoid fever is prevalent. (2238.) 

Counsel for the complainant then propounded a long hypothetical 
question to the witness with reference to the relative effect of the 
discharge of sewage from Chicago through the drainage canal and 
from all the other large cities on the drainage areas of the Missouri, 
upper Mississippi, and Illinois, exclusive of the Chicago sanitary 
district. • The cities, population, distance from St. Louis, the rivers 
into which the respective sewages were discharged, and the number 
of deaths from typhoid in each city were included in the question 
and are given in Table 42. (2239—2249.) 


1 16 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 42.— Population, deaths from typhoid, etc., in cities in Missouri, upper Missis¬ 
sippi, and Illinois drainage basins. 

MISSOURI DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Popula¬ 

tion. 

River receiving 
sewage. 

8^ 
8“ » 



Deaths from typhoid. 



City. 

«3 a -a 

t-t 

co O G 

CO 

o 

OO 

t-H 

OC 

T“ H 

»o 

05 

GO 

t-H 

5 

oo 

t-H 

u- 

o> 

oo 

r—i 

GO 

O 

OO 

t-H 

o 

05 

X 

t-H 

o 

o 

05 

rH 

t-H 

o 

05 

r-H 

O 

05 

t-H 

St. Charles, Mo . 

7,982 
163,752 

Missouri_ 

47 







99 

5 

6 

14 

Kansas City, Mo. 

.do. 

403 

59 

37 

34 

29 

38 

49 

52 

49 

58 

58 

St. Joseph, Mo. 

102,000 
102,552 
25,802 

.do. 

501 

20 

22 

31 

19 

13 

19 

37 

20 

12 

13 

Omaha, Nebr. 

.do. 

676 

22 

40 

29 

18 

22 

32 

26 

24 

23 

22 

Council Bluffs, Iowa. 

.do. 

676 

5 

7 

6 

8 

8 

6 

11 

6 

6 

8 

Lincoln, Nebr. 

40,169 

Platte. 

745 

33 

21 

23 

15 

14 

12 

13 

4 

13 

10 


UPPER MISSISSIPPI DRAINAGE BASIN. 


Ouincv, Ill. 

36,000 

Mississippi. 

148 1 21 

28 

25 

13 

13 

7 6 

10 

14 

1 

Keokuk, Iowa. 

14,041 

.do. 

185 i 8 

13 

2 

3 

7 

9 9 

10 

4 


Burlington, Iowa_ 

23,201 

.do. 

225 8 

10 

8 

13 

3 

4 8 

13 

12 

1 

Rock Island, Ill. 

35,300 

.do. 

310 15 

13 

3 

13 


.... 10 

14 

28 


Davenport, Iowa.... 

35! 254 

.do. 

310 5 

6 

4 

3 

5 

2 12 

14 

11 

1 

Moline, Ill. 

7,987 

.do. 

313 7 

9 

8 

11 

3 

5 20 

99 

16 


Des Moines, Iowa.... 

62,139 

Des Moines. 

387 1 22 

29 

30 

14 

20 

17 13 

7 

22 

2 

Minneapolis, Minn... 

102,718 

Mississippi. 

707 1134 

107 

88 

60 

148 

86 71 

13 

121 

6( 

St. Paul, Minn. 

163,055 

.do. 

694 51 

32 

38 

37 

22 

43 30 

30 

24 

11 


ILLINOIS DRAINAGE BASIN. 


Peoria, Ill. 

Springfield, Ill.. 
Bloomington, Ill 

Decatur, Ill. 

Ottawa, Ill. 

Joliet, Ill. 

"Pekin, Ill. 

Elgin, Ill. 

Aurora, Ill. 

Havana, Ill. 


Chicago, Ill 


56,000 

• 

Illinois. 

198 




13 

18 

18 

12 

23 

15 

18 

34,159 

Sangamon. 

191 








20 

10 

8 

23,286 

.do. 

238 

12 

14 

15 

9 

10 

10 

9 

15 

9 

15 

20,754 

.do. 

246 

5 

7 

2 


2 

5 

7 

11 

5 

4 

10,588 

Illinois. 

282 

2 

5 

2 

2 

4 

4 

3 

3 

5 

2 

29,000 

Desplaines. 

322 

12 

14 


12 

12 

15 

13 

13 

13 

21 

6, 420 

Illinois. 

188 








2 

1 

2 

22, 433 

Fox. 

348 

5 

3 

5 

14 


4 

5 

15 

15 

8 

24,147 

.do. 

328 

6 

12 

19 

10 

5 

10 

4 

17 

11 

2 

3,268 

Illinois. 


3 

7 

2 

5 





1 

2 




















369 

357 

385 

338 

442 

365 

a 1,500,000 

Drainage canal.. 

408 



518 

751 

437 

636 

442 

336 

509 

801 


o Estimated. 


The question continued as follows: 

Assuming that the total number of deaths from typhoid fever on said watersheds in 
all other towns and cities of 4,000 population and over have not increased for said years 
in any greater or different proportion than in the cities above mentioned; 

Assuming that the three rivers mentioned run through alluvial soil principally, and 
the Illinois River enters the Mississippi at Grafton, 29 miles above the Chain of Rocks 
intake tower of the St. Louis waterworks, that the Missouri River enters the Mississippi 
23 miles below Grafton and 6 miles above the intake tower * * * located on the 
Missouri side of and in the channel of the Mississippi River about 1,500 feet from the 
Missouri shore; 

Assuming that the city of St. Louis obtains its water from the Mississippi at the 
intake tower, * * * by which it supplies its citizens, about 600.000 in number, 
with water for drinking and domestic purposes, and that no substantial change in the 
method of taking said water or treatment thereof has occurred since January 17, 1900; 

Assuming that the sewage of 1,500,000 inhabitants of Chicago has, since January 17, 
1900, been discharged into the Chicago drainage canal at Lockport, 291 miles above 
Grafton, and that the sewage-polluted water from said city and canal has continually 
since said day proceeded into the Desplaines River at Lockport, and that the Des- 






















































































































































TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGW-ICK. 117 

piailies enters * * * Illinois River, forming a continuous water course from Chi¬ 
cago to the Missouri shore of the Mississippi River and to St. Louis; 

Assuming that in the years 1895 to 1902, inclusive, the number of deaths in Chicago 
from typhoid fever was [as indicated in above table]; and 

Assuming that in St. Louis for the years 1900, 1901, and 1902, and to this day, the 
percentage of annual typlioid-fever mortality to total mortality has increased about 72 
per cent over and above that of the years 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899, and that the 
typhoid deaths in all towns and cities over 4,000 inhabitants were about the same per 
[unit] population as those given above on the watersheds of said three rivers during 
said time, and that on the ordinary basis of computing sanitary population by taking 
the aggregate population of all towns and cities of 4,000 inhabitants or over on the 
watersheds named, there was a population as follows: On the Missouri watershed, 
10,901,832; on the Mississippi above Grafton, 1,219,645; on the Illinois River, exclu¬ 
sive of the sanitary district of Chicago, 385,305; 

State what, in your opinion, the sewage from 1,500,000 people of Chicago discharged 
into the drainage canal had to do with the increased death rate from typhoid fever in 
St. Louis, as above stated. 

The reply of the witness to this hypothetical question was as 
follows: 

After having carefully considered the question and the assumptions which it con¬ 
tains, and in view of my studies of the typhoid-fever statistics of the city of St. Louis 
to which I referred in my testimony of yesterday. * * * I believe that beyond all 

resonable doubt the principal factor of the annual increase of typhoid-fever mortality 
of the city of St. Louis since January 1, 1900, has been due to the pollution of the 
water supply of tl)e city of St. Louis by the unpurified sewage of the sanitary district 
of Chicago. (2250) 

In closing the direct testimony the witness asserted that, in his 
opinion, no competent expert either can or will say that any means 
exist at present by which the impurified sewage of the sanitary dis¬ 
trict of Chicago can be warded off from the people on the Missouri 
shore and the citizens of St. Louis in the event of a period of 
low water in Missouri Liver synchronously with a flood on the Illinois 
basin. (2253) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

An important point brought out in the cross-examination was the 
opinion of the witness that even if all the sewage from the sanitary 
district of Chicago were eliminated from the Illinois River basin, 
leaving only the pollution otherwise entering the Illinois and that in 
upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers, the water entering the intake 
of the St. Louis waterworks would still certainly be polluted and dan¬ 
gerous do the people of St. Louis and the towns below; and that so far 
as purification of this water by filtration or other means is concerned 
the cost thereof would not be materially affected by the addition of 
the sewage from the Chicago sanitary district. (2254-2258.) 

During the cross-examination the statement was made by the witness 
that the chemical examination of water for the purpose of determining 
its potability is useful under some but not all circumstances. If the 


118 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


water be grossly polluted, no great skill is required; if only slightly 
polluted no evidence of value would be produced by the analysis. 
The same is true of bacteriological evidence. Both kinds of evidence 
would be preferable to either alone, but the combined testimony is 
subject to the same conclusion, namely, that pollution would be 
sometimes indicated and sometimes not. (2258-2260.) 

The witness stated that the addition of 1 gallon of typhoid-infected 
sewage to Mississippi River at Alton might make the water of St. 
Louis dangerous to drink. lie was then asked if the same would be 
true of St. Charles, Kansas City, and Omaha, stating in reply that he 
would consider that the water into which such sewage was emptied 
would be unfit for drinking purposes when it reached St. Louis. In 
explaining his answer the witness stated that it is hard to draw the 
line in'cases of this kind, as it always is in sanitary matters, and that 
if the sewage pollution were to take place only once he would not 
ordinarily consider the water unfit for drinking. There is a point in 
questions of this kind where it is a very difficult matter to decide; 
chemical and bacteriological evidence and the conditions of purifica¬ 
tion en route should be taken into consideration. (2263-2266.) 

The longest well-established distance which typhoid germs are 
known to have traveled to cause infection in water supplies was stated 
by the witness to be 57 miles, in the case of the Detroit epidemic. 
The greatest assumed distance for such a journey was 113 miles, 
from Oil City to Pittsburg. In fact, no limit may be placed on the 
distance that a typhoid bacillus may travel in water and retain its 
virulence, if the rate of travel is fast enough. In the present state 
of knowledge the witness was unwilling to set any limit of distance, 
but the real problem was, according to him, based not so much on 
the distance as on the time. (2270-2271.) 

The witness then discussed the process of calculation by which he 
reached his results of typhoid-fever mortality at St. Louis. The 
ratio of the total number of deaths from typhoid fever to the total 
number of deaths from all causes gives the percentage of mortality 
for that specific disease. In the case of St. Louis the statement of 
73 per cent increase in mortality from typhoid does not mean that 
the number of deaths from this disease since 1900 was increased bv 
73 per cent over the number of deaths from the same disease during 
the five years previous, but that such increase had taken place in the 
percentage of typhoid deaths to total deaths in the two periods. In 
other words, the typhoid death rate is based on the total number of 
deaths, a definite factor, rather than on the population, an extremely 
indefinite and fluctuating factor. In the present case a percentage 
of mortality was computed for each of the years specified. The 
deaths for the five years 1895 to 1899, inclusive, were added together 
and divided by five, and those for the years 1900, 1901, and 1902 were 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


J19 

added and divided by three, and the results were compared, showing 
that the increase subsequent to January 1, 1900, was 73 per cent. 
There are, according to the witness, various ways of getting at the 
relative efficiency of any particular disease as a death agent. The 
quickest way is to compare the total number of deaths from that 
disease with the ascertained or estimated population. This is what 
is known as the death rate from that disease, always a more or less 
uncertain factor. On the other hand, it is generally held that the 
total number of deaths is ascertained in most cities with considerable 
precision. (2293-2295.) 

In response to the question, u Suppose that a certain identified 
quantity of water should require in its transmission from the outlet 
of the sanitary district canal into the Illinois River to Grafton five 
weeks, would you say that the typhoid bacillus might live in that 
given bod} 7 of water ?’ ’ the witness answered in the affirmative. The 
same answer was given with the time specified as five months. With 
reference to a time interval of one year the witness stated that he 
could conceive of conditions which might prolong its life to that 
extent. For example, the pouring of a large quantity of acid from 
manufacturing wastes down the canal during that year might con¬ 
ceivably destroy the typhoid germs in the water and in the sediment. 
On the other hand, the discharge of an unusual amount of organic 
matter from the stock yards might so enrich the water as to sustain 
the life of the germ perhaps even longer than one year. The fact is 
that the conditions which must be considered in a case of this kind 
are so many that it is impossible to make categorical deductions 
which will have any real value. The chances are good that the 
greater part of the germs would die, but the possibility remains that 
some might still be alive if they came from sewage under the condi¬ 
tions existing on Illinois River. In reply to the same hypothetical 
question with the time fixed at fifteen months, the witness replied: 
“I should say that in regard to a period beyond a few weeks or 
months that in general the mortality among the typhoid bacteria 
would be heavy, but that I should never feel certain, even after one 
or two years, or possibly longer, that some of those were not still 
living there. (2315-2316.) 

In reply to a direct question, the witness stated that he attributed 
the typhoid fever in St. Louis during 1895 to 1899, inclusive, to a vari¬ 
ety of circumstances, each of which probably played its proportionate 
part in making up the total. The water may have contributed to the 
net result; also milk, oysters, and secondary infection. Other infected 
foods, such as water cress, celery, and unwashed fruits, had an impor¬ 
tant bearing; also flies and all similar factors^ each of which tends to 
keep up in all cities of the world a small but rather constant amount 
of typhoid fever. The witness asserted that the increase of typhoid 


120 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

fever subsequent to January 1, 1900, was not due to an overindulgence 
in oysters on the part of the inhabitants, while there was no doubt 
that some typhoid-infected oysters may have been eaten in St. Louis 
during those years and may have caused some cases of typhoid fever. 
The amount of increase of the disease subsequent to January 1, 1900, 
in view of the size of the city, would mean, if attributed to oysters, 
so vast a change in the habits of the people or in the condition of the 
oyster supply of the United States, that such a theory would be 
unreasonable, particularly as oyster-caused epidemics are not frequent 
and are local, while the rise in typhoid fever in St. Louis has been 
persistent. (2328-2331.) 

The agency of wells in St. Louis as a factor in the distribution of 
typhoid fever was then discussed by the witness, who stated that his 
investigations showed that there were about 2,000 wells in use, and 
that the chances are that many of them were infected; but a considera¬ 
tion of all the circumstances, so far as they could be learned by making 
careful inquiries as to changes in the customs of the people after Janu¬ 
ary 1, 1900, would put the investigator in a position to say" positively 
whether the increase in typhoid was due to any such cause.' The 
witness had considered tlie subject of the number of wells and whether 
such number was materially changed after the date mentioned, and 
had come to the conclusion that there was no reason to believe that 
any material change in the habits of the people in regard to the use 
of such wells had occurred since that date, and that, therefore, this 
agency may be entirely excluded as a factor in causing any portion 
of the increase. The witness affirmed that lie was justified in making 
this statement, even though he had made no personal inspections of 
any wells or outhouses and did not know how many people drinking 
well water had contracted the disease. 

Continuing, the witness stated that the theory of well water as a 
factor in the production of typhoid fever had, in his opinion, been 
overworked, and that the danger of well waters had been greatly 
exaggerated in public belief. In his extensive bacteriological experi¬ 
ence he but very seldom had had occasion to attribute to infected wells 
epidemics of typhoid fever, and had never seen an epidemic of any 
considerable size from such sources. From his experiments made for 
the State board of health of Massachusetts on the purifying power of 
earthy materials he had found that as a rule the passage of infectious 
materials through open soils removes all traces of infection. If the 
soil is not open, obviously infection can not pass. The only case, in 
the judgment of the witness, in which privies and cesspools are dan¬ 
gerous to wells are those in which the soil is either ver} T open or 
cracked or fissured in some way. In view of all these facts, and in 
view of the further fact that no material or essential change had taken 
place in the habits of the people of St. Louis since January 1, 1900, 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


121 


the witness excluded altogether the wells as an element in the typhoid- 
fever increase. While they may have contributed to keep up the 
usual small amount of this disease in St. Louis, they formed no factor 
in the large, steady, and continuous increase since January 1, 1900. 
The witness stated that his investigations showed that the 'character¬ 
istics of this disease in St. Louis are such as might be expected, and 
have in fact been present, in epidemics due to infected water supply. 
In the rare instances in which epidemics have been traced to wells, 
the deaths are numerous within a short period—bunched together, so 
to speak, both as to time and place. Even on the assumption that 
the wells in St. Louis might be contaminated with typhoid, it would 
be a comparatively easy matter to ascertain and demonstrate the fact 
that the disease was derived mainly from the general water supply, 
for if it were caused by infected wells, inasmuch as it is absolutely 
inconceivable from a sanitary standpoint that any very large number 
of wells should be infected, the vital statistics must then show a much 
larger number of deaths in restricted localities than ever before, but 
so concentrated in time as to pass like a wave over these localities, 
whereas no such waves could be recognized in the present case. (2341— 
2353.) 

In response to the question whether or not the witness would, as 
a sanitarian, have recommended to the citizens of St. Louis the Mis¬ 
sissippi water in its unpuritied state as a water supply at any time 
previous to 1900, he stated that he probably would not have recom¬ 
mended it at any time for drinking purposes without treatment or 
purification, inasmuch as one could never know with any precision 
or certainty that the specific disease germs derived from the sewage 
emptied into the river at different places above on the drainage area 
had been effectually removed, and inasmuch as the stirring of sedi¬ 
ments by steamers or by fishermen might at any moment convert 
what would otherwise be a well-purified stream into one of danger. 
(2362-2363.) 

REDIRECT EXAMINATION. 

The witness referred to his use of the term “normal” as referred to 
the rate of typhoid fever in a city, and classed it as objectionable, 
substituting the word “residual in its stead. He explained that in 
using the word “normal” he was simply trying to arrive at a good 
scientific expression for subsequent use. If it should appear that the 
typhoid fever remaining in a city conformed comparatively with the 
amounts remaining in other cities having good water supplies, such a 
remnant or remainder might well be called the residual typhoid and 
represents the typhoid which will occur in any community sporad¬ 
ically and without reference to any particular source. (2379-2380.) 

He then pointed out, in response to questions, that during 1897, 
1898, and 1899, the number of deaths from urban typhoid on the 


122 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


drainage area of Mississippi River above St. Louis, excluding the 
sanitary district of Chicago, was about 1,100, and that the fatality in 
typhoid being assumed as 10 per cent, this represents at least 11,000 
cases for the three years under consideration. In the sanitary dis¬ 
trict of Chicago during the same years there were 1,515 deaths from 
typhoid, which would mean, when calculated on the same basis, 
15,150 cases, or 4,000 more than occurred in all the remainder of the 
Mississippi drainage area above St. Louis. The witness further 
pointed out that the number of deaths from typhoid on the Mississippi 
drainage area, exclusive of the sanitary district of Chicago, during 
1900, 1901, and 1902, was 1,144, representing an estimate of 11,440 
cases, while the number in the sanitary district of Chicago was 1,647, 
representing 16,470 cases—an excess in Chicago of about 5,000. The 
witness expressed himself as greatly impressed with this comparison, 
as it showed that by the diversion of the Chicago sewage into Illinois 
River the morbidity from typhoid fever in the Mississippi drainage 
area above St. Louis had been increased by considerably more than 
100 per cent. 

On being asked to reconsider his assertion made in cross-examina- 

O * i 


tion that the cost of filtering the St. Louis water supply would not be 
materially increased by the addition of the pollution derived from 
the drainage canal, the witness stated that on reflection he realized 
that he did not sufficiently consider the fact that, aside from the 
masses of filth that might be washed down in certain cases and that 
would add somewhat to the cost of cleaning and care of the filter, 
there would be the necessity for a much keener watch of the filters 
and for more intelligent management, so that it might make a differ¬ 
ence between the employment of a low-salaried and a high-salaried 
man as resident manager of the works. Then there was the further 
contingency that with the unexampled increase of population in 
Chicago the Illinois and the Mississippi above Chain of Rocks might 
be reduced to an open sewer, and that under such conditions a single 
filtration of the water might not suffice. The witness admitted that 
this condition could not take place for a long period of years and 
until a vast population was added to that already living in Chicago; 
but, summing up the analogous cases in the United States in which 
pure streams had been reduced to a condition of hopeless pollution, 
stated that it was precisely these long looks into the future which 
should be taken in cases of this kind. Furthermore, in view of the 
facts that the low-water flow of Mississippi River at St. Louis is 
something like 40,000 cubic feet per second, and that Chicago is 
already pouring down 5,000 cubic feet per second in dilute sewage, 
while the drainage canal is built to discharge, eventually, 10,000 
cubic feet per second, it is well to inquire what will be the effect of 
discharging that amount of water and sewage into Mississippi River, 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 


123 


which is at times flowing only 40,000 cubic feet per second. At such 
times the danger line will be approached, and it is not at all incon¬ 
ceivable that when 10,000 cubic feet per second are'poured down, 
the presence of this material in the Mississippi, itself growing more 
polluted meanwhile, may bring about or help to bring about at cer¬ 
tain seasons of the year a condition approaching that of a septic 
tank, when the dissolved oxygen will begin to decrease and the water 


will begin to degenerate into a condition of dilute sewage. All 
these things would add to the cost to-day and would involve a greatly 
increased cost in the near future; within fifty or one hundred years 
they might even amount to such a pollution of Mississippi River in 


low-water times as to make it an impossible source for any modern 


civilized city. (2381-2385.) 

Professor Sedgwick was recalled to the stand to testify concernin<r 
the epidemic at Cumberland, Md., which was generally believed to 
have been the cause of an increase in the typhoid-fever rate at Wash¬ 
ington, D. C., through the infection of Potomac River, from which 
Washington takes its water supply, and on which Cumberland is 
situated, about 175 miles above. 

From the testimony of the witness it appears that there were, in 
1890, at Cumberland, 98 deaths from typhoid fever, distributed as 
follows: January, 18; February, 27; March, 39; April, 8, and May, 5. 
The number of cases reported in this epidemic was 485, which was 
believed by the witness to be entirely too small, as the number of 
deaths indicates that, with the usual fatality of 10 per cent, the total 
number of cases should have been about 980. The sewers of Cum¬ 
berland, so far as sewerage was provided, emptied into North Branch 
of Potomac River and into Wills Creek, a tributary of North Branch 
at that point. In addition to the sewers, there were an unusually 
large number of privy vaults set directly over the river or its tribu¬ 
taries. The result of this epidemic was a large increase of the disease 
in Washington, and this was pronounced by the witness to be one of 
the most important examples on record of the transmission of typhoid- 
fever germs over long distances. Beginning in March, 1890, the num¬ 
ber of deaths was as follows: March, 19; April, 11; May, 13; June, 33; 
July, 36; August, 28; a total of 140, exceeding the normal rate in 
Washington by about 100 per cent and indicating an incidence of the 
disease amounting to about 1,400 cases. (2759-2761.) 

This instance, according to the witness, is particularly interesting 
by reason of the fact that Cumberland is about 175’miles from Wash¬ 
ington, and because the river is of such a character as to offer a good 
example of a stream neither very swift nor very slow, but having 
occasional areas of what might be called slack water. The epidemic 
at Cumberland must have afforded a heavy infection of the stream, 
although it is a fact that at that time the city was not thoroughly sew¬ 
ered. It is, however, peculiarly arranged with reference to the water 


124 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

courses flowing past or through it. It is at the junction of that por¬ 
tion of the river which comes down from the Allegheny M-ountains and 
another portion which comes from the West Virginia hills. One other 
fact of great importance should be mentioned. Between October 4, 
1899, and March, 1890, the sedimentation basin and the distributing 
reservoir in Washington were out of service, so that during that period 
the water of the Potomac was delivered to the citizens of Washington 
without purification of any kind. As a result of the pollution of Poto¬ 
mac River, Congress authorized and provided for the construction of a 
filtration system for the city of Washington. (2761-2763.) 

GEORGE W. FULLER. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

George W. Fuller was called as a witness in behalf of the complain¬ 
ant, and in qualifying stated that he was a sanitary expert, profession¬ 
ally educated at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and at the 
University of Berlin. In connection with his work in Germany, lie 
studied bacteriology at the Hygienic Institute and in the private labo¬ 
ratory of the engineer in charge of the filtration plant of the Berlin 
waterworks. After returning from his European studies he was for 
five years in the service of the State board of health of Massachusetts, 
the greater portion of that time being spent at Lawrence, where there 
is an experimental plant, conducted with a view to finding the best 
ways of purifying sewage and water. During most of his stay at this 
experimental plant he was in immediate charge. For four years after 
leaving Lawrence lie worked in the valley of Ohio River at Louisville 
and Cincinnati, being engaged in studying the best means of purifying 
the polluted Ohio River water at those cities. Since finishing the 
Ohio River work he had been in private consulting practice and had 
made investigations at upward of twenty-five or thirty cities, among 
which are a number of the most important cities in this country, such 
as Washington, D. C.; Springfield, Mass.; New Haven, Conn.; Oswego, 
N. Y.; Meadville, York, and Columbia, Pa.; and the group of cities 
lying directly west of New York, furnished by affiliated water compa¬ 
nies, including Paterson, Passaic, Jersey City, and Hoboken. The 
witness further stated that he was a member of the American Society 
of Civil Engineers, the American Chemical Society, the Society of 
American Bacteriologists, the American Public Health Association, 
the American Waterworks Association, and the American Society of 
Naturalists, and that in connection with his membership in the Ameri¬ 
can Public Health Association he had been chairman of the committee 
on the pollution of public water supplies and of the committee on 
standard methods of water analysis. (2602-2605.) 

The witness gave the following facts in regard to the water supply 
of St. Louis: The Mississippi for many years has been the source of the 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE W. FULLER. 


125 


St. Louis water supply. Thirty years or more ago the municipal 
water department established an intake at Bissells Point, near the 
present Merchants Bridge. At that place four settling basins, each 
having a capacity of about 15,000,000 gallons were provided. The 
water from the river was pumped to these basins, in which it was set¬ 
tled—that is, partially clarified—and partially purified, and then it 
was pumped into the distributing mains that conveyed it to the citi¬ 
zens of St. Louis. These works continued in service until the autumn 
of 1894. For about ten }-ears preceding that time attention had been 
given to the subject of locating a new point of intake, and as soon as 
the enabling acts were passed construction was commenced of the 
works as they now exist at Chain of Rocks. The object of moving the 
intake from Bissells Point to Chain of Rocks, 8 miles or so upstream 
and .about 6 miles below the mouth of the Missouri, was to avoid all 
possibility of sewage pollution such as had been caused at Bissells 
Point by the inhabitants of the northern district of St. Louis where the 
population had increased rapidly since the time that the Bissells Point 
plant was constructed. (2606.) 

At Chain of Rocks a tunnel is constructed through the solid rock, 
extending out from the Missouri shore about 1,500 feet and terminat¬ 
ing in an intake tower located on the Missouri side of the main channel 
of the river; the water entering this intake tower flows by gravity 
through the tunnel, which connects with a suction well 100 yards or 
so distant from the shore. From this suction well the water is pumped 
by the low lift pumps situated in the adjoining station to a series of 
six settling basins, each of which is about 660 feet long and 400 feet 
wide and has an average depth of water of about 15 feet to flow line 
and a capacity of about 29,000,000 gallons. The river water in pass¬ 
ing through these settling basins is clarified to a considerable degree, 
a large amount of the mud found in the raw river water being left in 
the form of a deposit. A considerable portion of the bacteria are also 
removed, including those of infectious diseases, if such are present in 
the raw water. 

From these settling basins at Chain of Rocks the water flows by 
gravity through a masonry conduit leading to the old waterworks 
plant at Bissells Point, where a portion of it is taken by the pumps in 
the original station and delivered to the consumers. Since 1897, a 
part of the water, however, has been taken from this conduit about 
halfway between Chain of Rocks and Bissells Point, at Baden, where 
the high-service pumping station is located.. At this station a con¬ 
siderable part of the water going to the hilly portions of St. Louis is 
pumped. (2606-2607.) 

The witness stated that no change in the method of treatment of 
the raw water from Mississippi River had taken place since the late 

autumn of 1894. 


126 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

It was liis opinion that the best index of the sanitary character of 
a public water supply is the record of mortality from water-borne 
diseases in the community using it, and especially the mortality 
statistics of typhoid fever. It had been his experience that the 
typhoid stat istics are preferable to those of other water-borne diseases, 
because of the widespread nature and distribution of typhoid, its 
abundance in those communities supplied with sewage-polluted waters, 
its well-defined character,'and the substantially large percentage of 
deaths to cases. The witness believed, however, that if Asiatic 
cholera should become established in this country, it might serve 
equally well as an index to the character or water. He further stated 
that the number of typhoid-fever deaths in the United States, based 
on a conservative estimate, is from 25,000 to 30,000 per year, and that 
the number of cases will reach more than 250,000 annually. (2608) 

The witness then stated that the water supplied to the citizens of 
St. Louis during the years 1895 to 1899 was what might be called 
good sanitary water, basing his judgment on the typhoid-mortality 
statistics. The water entering the intake tower of the waterworks 
during the same period was what might be called a suspicious water, 
by which he meant not distinctly a good water, and was in a much less 
safe condition from a sanitary standpoint than after it had been stored 
in the settling basins. (2608-2610.) 

The witness then reviewed the number of deaths from typhoid fever 
in St. Louis from 1895 to 1902, inclusive, a and went on to state 
that averaging the number of deaths during the first five years, 1895 
to 1899, gives 112 deaths per annum from typhoid fever, while a 
similar average during the three years beginning January, 1900, is 
196, showing an increase in round numbers of about 80 per cent in 
the number of deaths. The increase of population during that period 
being taken into consideration and the typhoid-fever deaths being 
expressed witUreference to the number per 100,000 population, there 
had been an increase since January, 1900, of about 60 per cent. The 
number of deaths from typhoid fever during the eight years being 
compared with the number of deaths from all causes, the increase 
since January, 1900, in the average percentage of typhoid mortality 
was 73 per cent. The witness then stated that, to speak broadly, 
there had been an increase during the period from January 1, 1900, 
to the date of the testimony of about 60 to 70 per cent above the 
average of the earlier period. Comparing the number of deaths from 
typhoid fever during the first five months of each year in the two 
periods, the witness stated that the earlier periods showed numbers 
very much less than the later. This was particularlv true of the year 
of the testimony, 1903, when there were in Januarv 15 deaths, in 


«Date given in testimony of W. T. Sedgwick. 




TESTIMONY OF GEORGE W. FULLER. 


127 


February' 15, in March 20, in April 17, and in May, up to the date 
of testimony, 18, indicating an unusual prevalence of typhoid fever. 
(2610-2012.) 

The witness then stated that he ascribed the increased amount of 
infection to the public water supply and predicated this opinion on 
the practically uniform distribution throughout the city of the resi¬ 
dences in which typhoid deaths had occurred, and the further fact 
that a careful examination of several other possible sources of typhoid 
fever showed that no substantial portion of tnis increase can be 
explained in that way. Since January, 1900, the sanitary character of 
the public water supply delivered to the consumers in St. Louis has 
been less safe than formerly and it could not be classed as good water. 
As the treatment of the raw water after it left the intake tower had 
been essentially the same since January, 1900, as before, the witness 
declared that the change must have come about in the water before 
entering the tower and at some place above the waterworks. Con¬ 
tinuing, he stated that he was generally familiar with typhoid sta¬ 
tistics in the large centers of population on the Mississippi watershed 
above Chain of Rocks. During the periods under discussion there 
had been at a number of points some variation in the amount of 
typhoid fever prevailing indifferent years. To take the typhoid-fever 
statistics on this watershed, as a whole, excluding the sanitary dis¬ 
trict of Chicago, it was his judgment, based on the average number of 
deaths from typhoid per year, that there had not occurred on the 
natural drainage area of the Mississippi watershed above St. Louis 
any increase in the number of deaths sufficient to explain to any 
material degree the less safe condition of the Mississippi water at the 
intake tower. He considered that the cause of this condition was the 
discharge of sewage from the drainage canal, containing filth and 
infection from the city of Chicago. (2612-2615.) 

The approximate number of persons sewering into Mississippi River 
and its tributaries above the waterworks intake at Chain of Rocks, 
exclusive of the sanitary district of Chicago, was in round numbers, 
according to the witness, 2,700,000. This figure was based on a sepa¬ 
ration of the sewerage-contributing population from the rural popu¬ 
lation by taking the towns of 4,0g0 and over as representing those 
which had sewerage systems and contributed sewage directly to the 
watercourses. Some towns of more than 4,000 population are un¬ 
doubtedly not provided fully with sewerage facilities,- and on the other 
hand there are a number of towns of less than 4,000 population which 
have in a limited measure some sewerage. As a practical proposi- 
sition the amount of sewage contributed by the population in towns 
of less than 4,000 inhabitants no more than offsets in the aggregate 
the amount of pollution in the cities larger than 4,000 inhabitants 


128 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


which do not have sewerage and whose sewage therefore reaches the 
river indirectly. In making his statement as to the number of people 
in the aggregate sewering into Mississippi River above Chain of Rocks, 
the witness intended to include Missouri and Illinois rivers, exclusive 
of the sanitary district of Chicago. Based on these data, the witness 
calculated that the increase in population sewering into the Mississippi 
above St. Louis due to the construction of the Chicago drainage canal 
was about 60 per cent. (2616-2617.) 

The witness estimated that it would require from ten to twenty-five 
days for the Chicago sewage to flow from Lockport to Grafton, the 
average time being from fifteen to eighteen days. He considered that 
typhoid germs may and do live in sewage and polluted water, such 
as is found in the Illinois River valley, for weeks and even months. 
The dilution of the Chicago sewage as it flows from Lockport to 
Grafton by the waters of Illinois River and its tributaries is extremely 
variable. At times the dilution is considerable; at other times the 
flow of the canal may exceed that or Illinois River, particularly that 
of its upper reaches. Consequently there results at times a dilution 
of the sewage by the river and at other times a dilution of the river 
by the sewage. Dilution at best does not destroy the disease germs 
or infectious matter. Its effect is simply to minimize the danger to 
those who drink the water so diluted. One effect of the dilution exist¬ 
ing in Illinois River at low stages is to bring to Grafton more quickly 
than would otherwise be the case injurious matter entering the river 
at points along its route. (2617-2618.) 

With reference to the significance of the ponds, dams, and slack- 
water stretches found in Illinois River, the witness stated that there 
are a good many days in the course of a year when the velocities at 
these points are so low that deposition takes place to a considerable 
degree. But deposition does not mean permanent elimination from 
the flowing water. The dangerous substances may be disturbed 
from time to time by changes in velocity of the stream flow due to 
small or great floods, or by the passage of boats or the action of the 
wind. These disturbances cause the bacteria to leave the bed of the 
river and be carried on to greater or shorter distances, and in this way 
the germs of disease may pass fr^m the Chicago drainage canal at 
Lockport to the mouth of Illinois River at Grafton. In fact, the 
witness stated that it was probable that the water of Illinois River, 
passing into Mississippi River at Grafton, was sometimes richer in 
typhoid-fever germs derived from the sanitary district of Chicago 
than the water running over the Bear Trap dam. Such a condition 
of affairs might arise at times through disturbances of the sediment 
lying upon the bed of the stream in places. As the typhoid germs are 
returned to the flowing stream from their position on the bed an accu¬ 
mulated result is effected, whereby, at times at least, the waters of Illi- 


TESTIMONY OF GEOIIGE W. FULLER. 


129 


nois River flowing to Grafton may discharge the concentrated essence 
of the infection by taking, in the manner above described, portions of 
the infection coming from many days’ flow through the drainage canal 
into the river. (2619-2620.) 

Continuing, the witness stated that he did not believe it possible 
for Illinois River water ordinarily to flow by the intake at Chain of 
Rocks without some of it entering the intake tower. In his judgment, 
the sewage of the sanitary district of Chicago pollutes and infects the 
water of Mississippi River along the Missouri shore to such an extent 
that it makes this water less safe for drinking and domestic purposes 
than it was before the opening of the drainage canal. This conclusion 
he believed to be borne out by an examination of the records of 
typhoid-fever mortality. There were on the drainage area of Missis¬ 
sippi River above Chain of Rocks, exclusive of the sanitary district 
of Chicago, about the same number of typhoid deaths from year to 
year between 1895 and the date of the testimony, 1903; but since the 
opening of the drainage canal there had been added to the drainage 
area an amount of pollution shown by 1,647 typhoid deaths for 1900, 
1901, and 1902, and there was no doubt in the mind of the witness that 
these added cases had been the cause of the increase in St. Louis. 
(2621-2622.) 


Considering the probable future growth of Chicago and the con¬ 
stantly increasing amount of sewage discharged through the drainage 
canal, the witness believed that the water in Mississippi River along 
the Missouri shore would be rendered less safe than at the present 
time bv reason of the increased amount of infection discharged into 
the canal and the shorter interval of time required for its passage 
from the canal to Chain of Rocks as a result of the constantly increas¬ 
ing amount of water used to dilute the sewage, which would quicken 
the flow of Illinois River. At low stages of Illinois and Mississippi 
rivers it is quite possible, in the opinion of the witness, that the 
amount of pollution may become sufficient to exceed the amount of 
oxygen available in the water and to make the two rivers resemble 
open sewers rather than streams carrying live, natural water. (2622- 


2623.) 

In reply to the question whether or not the Chicago sewage would 
increase the difficulties of the problem of filtering or otherwise purify¬ 
ing the water supply of St. Louis, the witness stated that, in his judg¬ 
ment, the increased amount of infection adds to the responsibility of 
treating the water so as to make it perfectly safe and wholesome for 
the citizens of St. Louis, and that financially there would be the 
greater expense of the construction of a filtration plant and the added 
cost of supplies used in connection with its operation, especially in 
times of low water. It would also mean that filtration works, it 


ibb 194—07-9 


130 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

adopted, must at times be operated at lower rates of filtration than if 
this infection were absent, and this reduction of the rate of filtration 
would necessitate a larger and hence a more expensive plant to purify 
the same quantity of water. Looking some distance into the future, 
and considering the various centers of population tributary to Missis¬ 
sippi River above St. Louis, but excluding the sanitary district, the 
witness was certain that there will ultimately come a time when single 
filtration can hardly be expected to produce a satisfactory quality of 
water at Chain of Rocks. This condition and the time at which it 
arrives will depend on the rate of increase of population in the com¬ 
munities on the drainage area; but whatever the rate of growth in 
those communities may be, it is certain that the added infection due 
to Chicago sewage will hasten the day when single filtration will prove 
unsatisfactory and when it will be necessary to resort to other methods 
involving increased expense and responsibility. (2623-2624.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

In reply to questions the witness stated, among other things, that if 
a stream of water flowing 300,000 cubic feet per minute, into which 
was poured the sewage of Chicago, were started in a tortuous course 
at the Bear Trap dam, receiving no dilution on the way, it would not, 
in his opinion, be absolutely freed from infection by the time it reached 
New Orleans. While there would lie a verv great reduction in the 
number of typhoid germs present, there was no certainty of absolute 
elimination. The witness further emphasized the fact that the self¬ 
purification of a stream is controlled by the time and not by the dis¬ 
tance which it runs. Speaking absolutely, he believed it to be very 
doubtful whether there was any such thing as the purification of a 
stream of running water into which infected sewage is poured. The 
construction and maintenance of filtration systems for the purification 
of the St. Louis water were then discussed by the witness, who stated, 
with reference to the filtration of the Missouri River water as con¬ 
trasted with that of the Mississippi, that there would not be any mate¬ 
rial difference in the construction of any unit portion of the filters, but 
that as the pollution and infection increased a larger area would be 
required in order to satisfactorily purify the infected water. If he 
were providing a filter to treat Missouri and Mississippi water without 
the admixture of that from Illinois River, there would be no neces¬ 
sity for making it larger or more expensive because of the union of 
these waters. But in the case of the admixture of Illinois River water, 
although there would probably be no marked difference in the size of 
the first installation, the reserve portion of that installation would 
serve for a shorter period of years than would be the case if that water 
were excluded. With the Illinois water included, it would also 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE W. FULLER. 


131 

require more skill and judgment on the part of the engineer in charge 
of filter maintenance. (2624-2633.) 

The witness further stated that there were a good many days when 
the proportion of Illinois River water entering the St. Louis intake is 
exceedingly small, but to guard against danger arising on those occa¬ 
sions when a considerable proportion of Illinois River water enters the 
intake, there would be required a constant exercise of care and skill 
equivalent to that which would be necessary if it were absolutely cer¬ 
tain that a considerable proportion of Illinois River water came in 
constantly. 

The cross-examiner then sought to establish the assertion that if it 
were necessary to provide more expensive filters and maintain a more 
expensive superintendence because of the discharge of Chicago sewage, 
the same necessity would arise in case there were a great epidemic of 
typhoid fever at Kansas City, the infection from which, as admitted 
by the witness, would reach Chain of Rocks under ordinary conditions 
in about one week. The apparent purpose was to show that for the 
safety of St. Louis at all times it would be necessary to provide as 
expensively for the elimination of sewage naturally running into the 
Mississippi drainage area as it would for that of sewage artificially 
diverted through the drainage canal. The witness replied that there 
would be an added danger from Illinois River, in that it is intermit¬ 
tently flushing out large accumulations of infected sediments, making 
the water constantly dangerous, whereas in the case of the supposed 
Kansas City epidemic the danger would not be constant but confined 
to a single limited period. As a general proposition, the growth of 
Kansas City is an impending menace to the water supply of St. Louis, 
but the contingency is remote, while the addition of the sewage from 
the Chicago drainage canal makes much less distant the day when 
serious trouble will result from the use of the water at the Chain of 
Rocks intake. (2639-2641.) 

With reference to the sewage pumped from Chicago River into the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal, thence entering Desplaines River, the 
witness stated that, in his opinion, prior to 1899 this canal contained 
infection in a considerable proportion, though a large part of the infec¬ 
tion from Chicago sewage remained in Chicago River. When the 
sewage was pumped into the Illinois and Michigan Canal the organic 
matter was in so advanced a state of decomposition that the propor¬ 
tion of typhoid-fever germs present compared with that originally 
present in Chicago River was exceedingly small, particularly as the 
much diluted contents of the canal flowed into Desplaines River. 
While this water was not absolutely free from infectious germs dan¬ 
gerous to the people of St. Louis, it was absolutely certain that it was 
not sufficiently infected to cause any trouble in that city, as evidenced 
by the low typhoid-fever rate. The Illinois and Michigan Canal was 


132 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

in effect a septic tank. It encouraged the growth of certain kinds of 
bacteria which are known to have a destructive influence on the 
germs of typhoid fever. This septic action, such as occurs in a tank 
or has occurred in the Illinois and Michigan Canal, does not ordinarily, 
if ever, take place in the bed of a stream to such an extent that it would 
affect very materially the life of typhoid germs. (2644-2645, 2652.) 

In the course of over a year’s investigation of water in Ohio River 
at Cincinnati, involving practically daily examinations, the witness 
found Bacillus prodigiosus on one occasion. While there is a possi¬ 
bility that others existed in the same water, it is a fact that the bac¬ 
terium is rarely found in American waters, although it is a very easy 
germ to discover. (2665-2666.) 

REDIRECT EXAMINATION. 

With reference to specific instances of typhoid bacilli being traced 
through the outfalls of the sewers of a city into running streams and 
conveying typhoid to persons using that water, the witness said that 
there were many in the sewage-polluted Ohio basin, especially at 
Louisville. The sewage coming down to Louisville originates almost 
entirely at Cincinnati, a distance of about 150 miles, and points above. 
At times of very low flow in the river the velocity is so slight that the 
period of time required for those germs to pass from Cincinnati to 
Louisville is more than a month. Nevertheless there was typhoid in 
Louisville due to the consumption of river water, even though the 
water had passed through settling basins holding five or six days’ 
supply, in which sedimentation takes place. This, in the opinion of 
the witness, was a very reliable demonstration that typhoid-fever 
germs are not absolutely removed from sewage-polluted waters in a 
period of one month. He cited, further, the instance of Covington, 
Ky., mentioned in the testimony of Professor Sedgwick, and stated 
that he considered that there was no room for doubt that a portion 
of the pollution existing in Ohio River at Cincinnati is due to the sew¬ 
age from cities located in Allegheny County, Pa., such as Pittsburg 
and Allegheny, which are 450 to 500 miles by river above Cincinnati. 
(2666-2667.) 

In reply to a question concerning the deposits of sediment in the 
slack-water places in Illinois River, such as Lake Peoria, the witness 
stated that there is documentary evidence and practical observation 
as to the amount of scouring which takes place. He quoted from 
reports of the Chief of Engineers of the United States Army as follows: 

Channels dredged twenty years ago are but little deteriorated, and it is surprising 
to find that there has been no deterioration in depth in the pools created by the Henry 
and Copperas Creek dams after from fifteen to twenty-eight years’ use. a 

The dams [in Illinois River] have no appreciable effect above mid-stage of the river 


a Kept. Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army, 1895, p. 2716. 




TESTIMONY OF GARDNER S. WILLIAMS. 


133 


when currents are the strongest, so that all lighter sediment is swept away as well now 
as before the construction of the dams. That there has been no appreciable change 
felt in the pools of Illinois River is a fact that has been often remarked upon by steam¬ 
boat men and persons interested in the use of the river since the construction of the 
first dam at Henry, thirty years ago.« 

The witness concluded his redirect examination by stating that in 
his judgment no great amount of sediment remains upon the bed of 
the stream of Illinois River for any great length of time. (2667-2668.) 

GARDNER S. WILLIAMS. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Gardner S. Williams, a witness called in behalf of the complainant, 
stated that he was a consulting water supply and hydraulic engineer 
of Ithaca, N. Y., consulting engineer of the Ithaca Waterworks Com¬ 
pany, and professor of experimental hydraulics in Cornell University, 
having occupied the latter position since the fall of 1898; that he had 
been educated in the common and high schools of Michigan and in 
the engineering department of the University of Michigan, where 
he took the degree of bachelor of science in civil engineering in 
1889 and the advanced degree of civil engineer in 1899, the latter 
being conferred on him by reason of his extensive studies in con¬ 
nection with water supplies, especially from a sanitary standpoint, 
water-borne diseases, and investigations of the flow of water, on 
which he had later been awarded the Normal medal by the Ameri- 
can Society of Civil Engineers. He had been connected with the 
construction of waterworks at Bismarck, N. Dak., and Greenville 
and Owasso, Mich.; from 1893 to 1898 he was civil engineer to the 
board of water commissioners of Detroit, where he was in charge 
of the engineering work connected with the construction of the 
extensive supply system of the city and made investigations on 
the flow of Detroit River in the American channel. He was also 
engaged as consulting engineer in the construction of other systems 
and planned and constructed additions to the waterworks plant at 
Ithaca, N. Y. The witness stated that since assuming charge of the 
hydraulic laboratory at Cornell University, which he claimed to be 
the most extensive hydraulic experiment station in the world, he 
had had abundant opportunity to study the flow of waters and 
their effects on the beds of streams, having conducted extensive 
experiments on the flow of water in open channels and over dams 
for the United States Board of Engineers on Deep Waterways, for 
the city of New York in connection with its investigations of the 
Croton water supply, and for the New York State canal survey, 
together with a number of less important investigations instituted by 
the laboratory itself. At the time of testimony the laboratory was 

a Rept. Chief of Engineers, U. S. Army, 1898, p. 2436. 





134 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


engaged on an extensive series of experiments for the hydrographic 
branch of the United States Geological Survey. During this time he 
investigated the flow of water at Holyoke, Mass., and Sault Ste. Marie, 
Mich. 

The witness stated that he had made investigations of typhoid 
fever epidemics at Detroit, Saginaw, and Charlevoix, Mich., and 
Ithaca, N. Y., and had studied the information published in regard 
to epidemics of water-borne diseases in this country and abroad. 
(2418-2421.) 

The sewerage system of Chicago was described as a combined sys¬ 
tem, receiving both household sewage and washings and filth from the 
streets of the entire city. The sewers receive the discharges of about 
1,750,000 people, amounting to about 4,400 cubic feet, or 150 tons, of 
solid human fecal matter every twenty-four hours, which, according 
to the witness, was more than 50 per cent of the suspended solid mat¬ 
ter at Lockport. The greater portion of this sewage is delivered into 
Chicago River and its branches and carried by way of the drainage 
canal into Desplaines, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers; the remainder 
of the sewage is emptied into Lake Michigan. That going through 
the drainage canal is diluted with Lake Michigan water, taken from 
a point directly over the beds of sewage deposit, which are from 1 to 4 
feet deep. This water is so poor that in the opinion of the witness if 
it were delivered, unmixed with sewage, to a conduit sufficient to 
carry it to the Mississippi at Grafton in the same period it takes for the 
present mixture to pass downstream to the same point it would be 
very likely to carry disease infection and would thereby constitute a 
menace to the health of the people using the Mississippi water below 
Grafton for drinking purposes. (2422-2424.) 

Referring to the physical characteristics of Desplaines and Illinois 
rivers, the witness stated that below Lockport the Desplaines has a 
rapid fall to Joliet, where the slope becomes materially less and lower 
velocities follow. The stream then passes on into the Illinois, which 
has a moderate slope in its upper portion, but as it comes down toward 
La Salle reaches a very flat country, where it partakes essentially at 
times of the nature of an estuary rather than of a river. It leaves its 
banks at a stage a little over 10 feet above ordinary low water and 
overflows large areas, forming basins which temporarily store the 
flood waters and then return them to the stream. For the purpose of 
improving navigation numerous dams have been constructed across 
the stream; these, being intended solely to store water in times of 
drought, are not of the nature of dams built for power purposes. The 
difference in height of the water surfaces, measured from the crests of 
the dam, in what would be the upper and the lower pools is frequently 
less than half afoot, so that in the case of markedly higher water the 
dams become submerged weirs. In times of low water they cause con- 


TESTIMONY OF GARDNER S. WILLIAMS. 


135 


siderable quiescence and an extensive sedimentation of suspended mat¬ 
ter results. As depositions occur in flowing water, the heavier materials 
naturally are deposited first. It is a notable fact that in such a stream 
the pressures existing in the thin layers of water vary inversely as the 
velocity; that is, the higher the velocity the less the pressure which the 
flowing water is able to exert on the water adjacent to it. The veloc¬ 
ity in streams is ordinarily rather uniform for some distance below the 
surface, so that it is easily possible for suspended matter to disappear 
from the surface of the stream and get into the lower layers. As it 
approaches the bottom, however, the decrease in velocity becomes more 
rapid, and hence the increase of pressure from point to point becomes 
more marked and the sinking particles meet a higher resistance, so 
that there accumulates at the bottom a layer of water that is highly 
charged with suspended matter. The lighter particles in the water 
will be the last to be deposited, and we may say, generally speaking, 
that the bacteria, which are of very nearly the same specific gravity as 
that of the water itself, will only be borne to the bottom when entan¬ 
gled with the heavier suspended matter. Therefore such bacteria 
would be less liable to be deposited than the inert mineral matter. 
(2425-2427.) 

Although it is true that large amounts of sedimented material have 
been deposited in Illinois River, there are also times when the river 
scours, or, in other words, takes up such deposited matter and carries 
it downstream. Observations of the United States engineers who 
have had charge of the improvement of that river show that there has 
been no extensive silting up or filling of the channels of the stream, 
either natural or artificial. It is not necessary to have flood condi¬ 
tions in order that this suspended matter shall be taken up and carried 
along. Very small changes in the stages of the river make very decided 
differences in the transportation of this material. The passage of 
boats also has very decided effects in stirring up these deposits. I he 
witness stated that during his investigations of the flow of St. Marys 
River he had opportunity to observe the extent to which these varia¬ 
tions in the velocity of the stream were felt. 1 here was at that time a 
channel about 2,600 to 2,800 feet wide and through the major part of 
its extent the depth was 50 to 56 feet. When a steamer drawing from 
14 to 17 feet passed through the channel, the velocities in the stream 
were disarranged and disturbed for a distance of as much as 100 feet 
each way from the steamer and extending to the bottom, and this 
disturbance continued sometimes for as much as half an hour after 
the passage of the steamer before the water Mas able to lesume its 
normal regimen. Such effects can not fail to be an important factor 
in the disturbance of the sedimentary deposits that may be formed 
along the bottom of a river, and they will lead to the picking up of par¬ 
ticles from the highly loaded layer of water next to the bottom. The 


136 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


lighter particles will of course be disturbed first, and therefore the 
bacteria will be much more likely to be resuspended and carried far¬ 
ther downstream than the mineral matter. They might be redepos¬ 
ited in some places in the course of flow, but some of them would 
undoubtedly be carried for very long distances, and in the case of Illi¬ 
nois River would be eventually discharged into Mississippi River. 
Whether or not their virulence would be diminished would depend on 
the length of time during which the bacteria might have remained 
deposited in the bed of the stream, but under such conditions as exist 
in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, receiving sewage from the city of 
Chicago, the witness saw no reason to believe that germs so deposited 
would be destroyed. It seemed to him entirely possible that as a 
result of the scouring action set up at the bottom of the slack-water 
portions of Illinois River, the water in times of flood might be more 
heavily charged with polluted and infectious matter than is the dilute 
sewage delivered into Desplaines River over the Bear Trap dam. 
(2427-2433.) 

The witness stated that, according to his estimates, during over 
three hundred days in the year 1900 the water would have flowed 
from the Bear Trap dam to the mouth of Illinois River in less than 
fifteen days. The discharge of Illinois River, containing the mixture 
of Chicago sewage and water, would increase the pollution and infec¬ 
tion of the water of Mississippi River at Grafton and render it less 
safe for drinking and general household purposes. Water so dis¬ 
charged would become mixed with Mississippi River water so as to 
affect its quality on the Missouri shore. When Illinois River enters 
the Mississippi at a lower velocity than that of the latter stream, the 
Illinois water would be drawn or forced to mingle with the Mississippi 
water in the same way that it is possible to pump water by means of 
the jet pump, which delivers a jet of water through a channel at a 
high velocity, entraining with it the slower-moving water at its side. 
Expressed in more popular language, the principle as stated by the 
witness, was that the more swiftly moving stream exerts a suction on 
the water of the slower stream which leads to the dissemination and 
mixing of the latter throughout the volume of the former. When the 
velocity of Illinois River is greater than that of the Mississippi, the 
momentum of the particles delivered to the Mississippi would be such 
as to carry them well out into the stream. The backing up of Mis¬ 
sissippi River water into Illinois River would also have the effect of 
producing a fairly thorough mixture of the waters of the Illinois and 
so much of the waters of the Mississippi as backed up into the stream, 
and as the flow of this water which had been stored in the Illinois 
came out of the mouth of the river, it would have the same effect as a 
flood rising in the Illinois itself, producing an additional scouring on 
the bottom of the river. The witness then stated that he was pre- 


TESTIMONY OF GARDNER S. WILLIAMS. 


137 


pared to assert positively that at times the waters of Illinois River 
reach the intake of the St. Louis waterworks at Chain of Rocks. (2434- 
2436.) 

The witness stated that if all the disease organisms discharged into 
Illinois River through the Chicago drainage canal should become 
innocuous at Lockport, the discharge would still be a menace to the 
health of the people of Missouri who used the Mississippi water for 
drinking purposes, for the reason that this quantity of water added 
to the stream tends to decrease materially the time required for the 
flow from various points of pollution along Illinois River, thereby 
making the infection reach St. Louis in a much shorter time than 
was required previous to the opening of the canal. Concerning the 
probable average and probable range of dilution of the suspended 
matter in the water of Mississippi River flowing past Chain of Rocks, 
caused by the discharge of Illinois River, the witness stated that his 
computations showed that during seven months in the year the ratio 
of the amount of suspended matter delivered into Desplaines River 
from the Chicago drainage canal and the amount of water flowing in 
Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks is from five-tenths to 1 part of 
the suspended matter per million parts of water in the Mississippi, 
and at a time of low water If parts per million. This computation 
is based on the solids which are in suspension in the sewage at the 
Bear Trap dam and has no bearing on any substances which may be 
in solution, and therefore do not appear as solids in suspension. 
(2436-2439.) 

The witness then described a case where a similarly polluted mix¬ 
ture of suspended solids from sewage matter had produced typhoid 
fever, as follows: 

The water supply of the city of Detroit is drawn from the American channel of the 
Detroit River, at the head of the river or at the foot of Lake St. Clair. Detroit River, 
as you know, is one of the links in the connecting waters between the upper lakes, 
Huron, Michigan, and Superior, and the lower lakes, Erie and Ontario, and is the 
natural outlet of the upper Great Lakes to the sea. The water from Lake Huron enters 
the St. Clair River and flows through it a distance of about 35 miles, to the delta of 
the St. Clair River, when it discharges into Lake St. Clair. Lake St. Clair is nearly 
circular in form, being 24 miles wide and, including its delta, about 24 miles in length, 
measured in the direction of flow. The water supply of Detroit is taken piactically 
from the lake or from the river a few hundred feet below the point where it takes 
its origin in Lake St. Clair. 

In the year 1890 the number of deaths in the city of Detroit from typhoid fever were 
39; in the year 1892 the number of deaths from typhoid fever in the city of Detroit 
were 209. This remarkable increase was such as to cause Detroit for that year to 
take rank among those cities which have had the highest death rates from typhoid 
fever in America—there are but one or two of our large cities that have had death 
rates notably higher than this, one of them being Chicago. An examination of the 
record showed that this epidemic began in June, during which month there were 38 
deaths by typhoid fever. As the civil engineer to the board of watei commissioner 
of Detroit, it was very natural that my attention should be called to this condition 


138 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


of affairs, as many people attributed the cause of the epidemic to the water supply, 
and I started to ascertain, if it were possible, where such a remarkable infection could 
have come from so suddenly and so unexpectedly. After an extended investigation 
I found that the epidemic was undoubtedly caused as a result of improvements to the 
channel of Black River, which flows into St. Clair River near its head, at Port Huron, 
a distance of about 57 miles from the intake of the Detroit waterworks. I found that 
Black River, which was a sluggish stream, having ordinarily no current whatever 
and only in times of heavy rains a perceptible current, had been for years receiving 
the sewage from the city of Port Huron, through the center of which it flows. In order 
to improve the harbor of Port Huron, which was virtually the lower portion of Black 
River, the United States Government had caused the river to be dredged during the 
early months of 1892, and in the process of that dredging had removed deposits from 
near the mouths of the sewers which ranged in depth from a foot to 7 or 8 feet, and, 
according to the testimony of some of those who lived along the banks, to as much as 
10 feet in depth. This material was loaded upon scows and transported out into the 
St. Clair River, where it was discharged or dumped into the stream, at a point, as 
I have already stated, about 57 miles above the intake of the Detroit waterworks. I 
found upon further investigation that this work had been begun during 1891 and that 
conditions were such that this particularly highly infectious deposit of material was 
reached right at the beginning of the operations in 1892, so that this fully explained 
the sudden outbreak of typhoid fever in Detroit, it having been carried through the 
water of the St. Clair River and through Lake St. Clair to the intakes of the Detroit 
waterworks, and thence distributed to the consumers throughout the city, with the 
result above mentioned. (2439-2441.) 

The time elapsing between the deposit of infectious mattei at 
Port Huron and the arrival of the water into which it was so dis¬ 
charged and the delivery of the same to the consumers in Detroit, 
as stated by the witness, would be the time required for the water 
to flow from the point in St. Clair River where the material was dis¬ 
charged to the intakes of the Detroit waterworks, which he estimated 
could not have been less than eight days and was probably about ten 
days. (2443.) 

The witness then stated that the incubation period of typhoid 
fever in about 75 per cent of the cases is from ten to fifteen days, and 
pointed out the fact that the sum of the time required for the appear¬ 
ance of infection in Detroit after the dumping of the pollution at 
Port Huron, the average incubation period, and the ordinary time 
elapsing between the onset of the disease and the occurrence of death 
agreed within twenty-four hours with the time which had elapsed 
from the deposit of the dredged material to the time when there 
were in a single day in Detroit four deaths from typhoid fever, there 
having been only one death from this disease during the preceding 
twenty-four days. (2444-2445.) 

The discharge of St. Clair River, according to the witness, varies 
from 180,000 to 200,000 cubic feet per second. At the time of the 
epidemic the discharge was about the former amount, which is 
equivalent to the discharge of Mississippi River at St. Louis during 
ordinary stages. Assuming the degree of dilution from such dis- 


TESTIMONY OF GARDNER S. WILLIAMS. 


139 


charge, the witness found that during the month of April, 1892, the 
ratio of volume of dredged material discharged per day into St. Clair 
River at Port Huron to the volume flowing in said river for twenty- 
four hours ranged from 0.55 to 1.1 parts of dredged material per 
million parts of water. The range of dilution of the sewage matter 
of Chicago in the waters of Mississippi River flowing past Chain of 
Rocks was stated to be at ordinary stages from 0.5 to 1 part of sus¬ 
pended matter per million parts of water. The witness said that the 
proportion of suspended matter in the sewage and water at Lock- 
port was something over twenty times as great as that in St. Clair 
River, while that in the Mississippi at Chain of Rocks, coming from 
the Chicago drainage canal, was substantially the same as that in St. 
Clair River at the time of the Detroit epidemic. (2445-2449.) 

The witness then described the epidemic at Grand Forks, N. Dak., 
substantially as follows: 

The main sewer of the city of Crookston, Minn., became damaged 
so that it failed to discharge the material delivered into it. This led 
to the accumulation of deposits of sewage matter in the sewer, and to 
afford a temporary relief a small connection was made around the 
break, which carried off a portion of the liquid matter of the sewage 
and discharged it into Red Lake River, the regular outlet for Crooks¬ 
ton sewage. In the fall of 1893 this sewer was repaired, and Novem¬ 
ber 17 the sewerage system of Crookston was flushed of the accumula¬ 
tions which had gathered during the several months preceding. 
Typhoid fever to the extent of about 60 cases had existed in Crookston 
in October and November. At the time of the flushing of these 
sewers and the consequent delivery of sedimentary accumulations to 
Red Lake River the surface of the river was frozen over. The town 
of Grand Forks is located on this river about 60 miles below Crookston. 
In November 2 cases of typhoid fever and no deaths were recorded 
in Grand Forks, and for months preceding there had been a very 
small amount of this disease. In December, following the flushing 
of the Crookston sewers on November 17, 230 cases of typhoid fever 
and 4 deaths were reported in Grand Forks, in January 712 cases and 
52 deaths, in February 231 cases and 27 deaths, in March 46 cases 
and 10 deaths, in April 26 cases and 2 deaths, and in May 1 case and 
no deaths—a total of about 1,200 cases of typhoid fever and 100 
deaths at Grand Forks as a result of the flushing of the sewers at 
Crookston. Grand Forks was at that time taking ics water supply 
from the river. This evidence was introduced to show that the infec¬ 
tious material accumulated in the Crookston sewers had retained its 
virulence and after such a term of storage and a transmission of 60 
miles by water had resulted in this great epidemic. (2455-2456.) 

In response to a direct question the witness said that it was his 
opinion, based on his knowledge of the transmission of typhoid fever 


140 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


through water, the conditions found on investigation to exist along 
the drainage canal and the streams which unite the sewers of Chicago 
with the intake of the St. Louis waterworks, and the conditions which 
have existed in Chicago and St. Louis prior to and since the opening 
of the canal, that typhoid infection has at times been transmitted 
from Chicago to the St. Louis intake, and that such conditions might be 
expected to persist in the future. The best criterion of the sanitary 
quality of a water supply that is used by a community for domestic 
purposes is the presence or absence among the people who use it of 
water-borne diseases, of which typhoid is the most important. The 
evidence afforded by the typhoid-fever statistics of St. Louis for the 
period 1895 to 1899 would indicate that the water supply was not 
ideal. Nevertheless, it would compare favorably with the supplies 
of a very large number of American cities and would rank with about 
the second class of American water supplies, as experts usually con¬ 
sider them. The evidence presented by the typhoid-fever statistics 
in St. Louis subsequent to January 17, 1900, however, showed that 
the probable infection of the supply had become nearly twice as great 
and that its rank had materially dropped, judged by the conventional 
standards of purity. (2460-2463.) 

The significance of the sanitary analysis as an aid in determining 
the presence of infectious pollution was then explained by the witness, 
who said that if it fails to show anything of a deleterious character, 
it is nevertheless not to be accepted as an evidence of purity, but if it 
does show the presence of substances which are recognized as con¬ 
nected with infectious material, then it is to be regarded as a valuable 
indication of the possibility of contamination. Whenever chemical, 
microscopical, or bacterial analyses of water indicate the presence of 
substances that are known to be related to infectious matter, it is 
proper to give to such evidence great weight in estimating the quality 
of the water. On the other hand, it is not necessary for the expert to 
depend on or to require either of these analyses in order to determine 
the degree of pollution of a water if it is possible for him to see the 
polluting material flowing into it. (2464-2467.) 

The witness then stated that if, with a knowledge of the existence 
of the conditions at Chicago and along the drainage canal and Des- 
plaines and Mississippi rivers, as they were known to the witness, an 
“expert” should state that it is impossible for infectious matter dis¬ 
charged by the sewers of Chicago to reach the Missouri shore of Mis¬ 
sissippi River and the intake of the St. Louis waterworks and be a 
source of danger to the citizens of Missouri residing on that shore and 
using the water from the Mississippi below the mouth of Illinois River 
for drinking purposes and to the citizens of St. Louis using the water 
supply drawn through the intake at Chain of Rocks, he (the witness) 


TESTIMONY OF GARDNER S. WILLIAMS. 


141 


would say that the person making this statement had thereby shown 
such a lack of knowledge of the history of water-borne diseases and 
the life and phenomena connected with their transmission and infec¬ 
tion as well as of the laws of flow of water in open channels as to 
totally disqualify him as an expert on the sanitary value or quality 
of a public water supply. The problem before future generations in 
St. Louis by reason of the discharge of Chicago sewage into Illinois 
River is far more difficult than that which is to be faced at present. 
A careful study of the relations existing between the flow of rivers 
contributing to the water flowing past the St. Louis intake and the 
prevalence of water-borne diseases in the city of St. Louis amonsr 
those of her citizens who are using the public supply has led to the 
conclusion that at the present time the remarkable immunity from 
serious typhoid infection which the citizens of St. Louis have thus 
far experienced is due very largely to the character and amount of 
water contributed by Missouri River. As the Missouri enters the 
Mississippi the amount of silt in suspension in its water often amounts 
to over 1,200 parts per million. A large part of this silt is of such a 
nature as to be readily deposited when the water approaches a state 
of approximate quiescence; and so vast a quantity of depositing mat¬ 
ter can not fail to remove a very considerable percentage of the bac¬ 
teria that are daily brought into the settling basins. As time goes 
on, the history of the Missouri will become the same as the history of 
every other stream on whose shores the hand of man has rested, and 
while the total quantity of water which that stream will deliver from 
year to year will remain about the same as now, the amount during 
periods of drought will be decidedly less and larger portions of the 
discharge will be gathered in a few floods. The result of this on the 
water mingling to form the supply of St. Louis will be that in the future 
Missouri River will show a diminution in the percentage which it 
represents of the total flow of Mississippi River past the city. It 
will therefore follow that the amount of silt furnished by Missouri 
River will be less and less sufficient to remove from the mixed water 
the number of disease germs, even aside from the certainty that the 
number of these germs will vastly increase as time goes on. It there¬ 
fore seems clear that the pollution of the waters of Illinois and Mis¬ 
sissippi rivers will have from year to year a continuously greater 
effect on the healthfulness and quality of the water delivered to the 
citizens of St. Louis by their waterworks system. In view of this 
fact, together with the wonderful growth of the city of Chicago, there 
can be no question that in the future the menace to the health of St. 
Louis arising from the discharge of Chicago sewage into Illinois River 
will be much more tremendous and impending than it is at the present 
time, grave though the present condition may be. (2473-2477.) 


142 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The witness stated, in response to a hypothetical question, that, 
assuming the existence of an equal number of cases of typhoid fever 
at St. Charles, Mo., and at Omaha, Nebr., and a subsequent occurrence 
of the disease at St. Louis, he would attribute the St. Louis typhoid 
to infection from both points. The life of the typhoid bacillus in 
streams is a matter of time rather than of distance, as a general prop¬ 
osition, but it was the opinion of the witness that no stream of water 
on the surface of the earth flowing in natural channels is long enough 
to warrant the absolute assurance that the typhoid germ might not 
live from one end of it to the other. If typhoid-fever germs were 
discharged into Mississippi River at St. Paul and no other possible 
source of infection of the waters appeared, they might arrive at New 
Orleans and infect the water supply of that city. (2547-2549.) 

Pages 2551-2583 of the record contain the report of cross-examina¬ 
tion directed to the witness for the purpose of ascertaining his reasons 
for declaring that the increase in the number of deaths from typhoid 
fever in St. Louis subsequent to the opening of the Chicago drainage 
canal was due to the discharge from that canal rather than to the dis¬ 
charge of sewage from the numerous cities located on Missouri, Mis-, 
sissippi, and Illinois rivers above the St. Louis waterworks intake. 
The witness confessed that it was impossible to determine by technical 
methods whether the virulent typhoid bacilli entering the intake 
were derived from the sewage of one city or another, but held that 
such demonstration was unnecessary to substantiate his claim of the 
culpability of Chicago sewers. Previous to the opening of the canal 
the water of St. Louis could not be considered safe at all times, by 
reason of infected discharges from city sewers lying in either one of 
the streams that converge above the intake, but the records show that 
the conditions that prevailed during the years previous to the opening 
of the canal had not been changed except that Chicago sewage had 
been discharged into Illinois River through the drainage canal. If 
this canal had not been opened these conditions would not lead one 
to expect any material increase in typhoid mortality in St. Louis, but 
the fact that the canal had been opened and Chicago sewage had been 
discharged into Illinois River, and that within a short time the typhoid 
in St. Louis had increased and such increase had been persistent, 
demonstrated that the discharge from the canal is responsible. In 
other words, the increase of typhoid fever in St. Louis must be due to 
some change of conditions with reference to the pollution of the St. 
Louis water supply, and the records of typhoid mortality throughout 
the contributing drainage area above the St. Louis intake reveal only 
one important change—namely, that of the added contribution of 
Chicago sewage. Therefore the observed effect in St. Louis must be 
due to that single cause. 


TESTIMONY FOR DEFENDANTS. 


143 


In closing his testimony, the witness stated that in considering the 
increase in the typhoid rate in St. Louis since the opening of the 
drainage canal he had used the records of deaths only. If the number 
of deaths in St. Louis should show an increase and the number of 
cases reported show a decrease he would still give attention to the 
death record because it is the more reliable. He would never base 
conclusions in a typhoid epidemic on the number of cases reported, 
because a man never dies but once, and in the case of death, under 
the laws of the 4 nited States, generally a record is made somewhere, 
whereas a man may be sick of typhoid and no record of it appear. 
As a matter of fact, it is a rare occurrence for more than 60 per cent 
of the actual typhoid cases to be reported. Therefore the case 
record is of no value. (2588-2589.) 

TESTIMONY FOR DEFENDANTS. 

The testimony for the defense was commenced on board the Illinois 
fish commission boat Illinois July 13, 1903, the boat proceeding up 
Mississippi and Illinois rivers and stopping at various points at which 
local testimony was taken. At each point where samples had been 
taken for examination by the experts to be produced in behalf of the 
defendants, the local collectors testified as to the manner of taking 
the samples, identified tags, and in all respects established the identity 
of the samples to be reported in subsequent testimony. In addition 
to this the testimony of many local persons living beside or working 
on the river was introduced at each point for the purpose of procuring 
their views with reference to the condition of the water in the stream 
before and after the opening of the drainage canal. As was stated by 
the counsel for the defendants, these witnesses were not offered as 
experts on the subject, but merely as laymen who had lived and 
worked on the river for considerable periods and had had ample 
opportunity to observe the waters before and since the opening of the 
drainage canal. The general testimony of these laymen throughout 
the course of the river was that in physical appearance the water had 
been greatly improved since the opening of the canal, that previously 
there had been, in times of low water, a large abundance of aquatic 
vegetation which frequently gave off foul odors, but that since the 
opening no such growth had occurred. The testimony of steamboat 
men and manufacturers with reference to the allged improvement of 
the water for boiler purposes was also presented, together with certain 
important testimony concerning the discharge of industrial wastes into 
the river, which will be reviewed at length in subsequent pages. The 
report of this testimony covers pages 2890-3498 of the record, repre¬ 
senting the period from July 13 to July 24, during which time the 
commission convened at all important points along the river from 
St. Louis to Henry, Ill. 


144 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


C. G. HERGET. 

C. G. Herget was called as a witness in behalf of the defendants and 
testified that he was manager of the Globe distillery, located at Pekin, 
about one-half mile from Illinois River. At this distillery whisky 
was manufactured, 90 per cent of the raw material being corn and 10 
per cent rye and malt. The slop, amounting to 40,000 gallons for 
each thousand bushels of grain used, was stored in tubs and fed to 
cattle. At this distillery 4,400 head of cattle were kept in barns 
located about one-half mile from the river. The slop was fed three 
times per day to the cattle, about 3 pecks per head at each feeding, 
together with hay or straw or cotton-seed hulls. The refuse from the 
stables, consisting of uneaten slop and hay and the excreted dis¬ 
charges of the cattle, the latter amounting to about 4 or 5 gallons per 
animal per day, was washed from the stable into drains and deposited 
in the river, where in low and medium stages of the stream it formed a 
sort of island, composed principally of manure, hay, straw, and 
refuse. During high water this island was cast loose and went float¬ 
ing down the river. (3325-3331.) 

• • 

PETER CASEY. 

Peter Casey testified that from 1895 to 1901 he was manager of 
four distilleries in Peoria, belonging to what is known as the whisky 
trust, and from June, 1901, to the date of the testimony, had been 
manager of the Corning Distilling Company. Between 1895 and 1900 
from 12,000 to 20,000 cattle were fed in Peoria in a manner similar to 
that described in the testimony of C. G. Herget. By 1901 and 1902 
the number of cattle fed had dropped to about 8,000. All the waste 
slop and excrementitious matter from the cattle was discharged into 
the river. The matter would accumulate along the banks for indefi¬ 
nite periods until high water washed it away, when it would flow 
down the stream in large islands, one of which was too large to pass 
between the piers of the Pekin bridge and it was necessary to break it 
up in order that it might continue on its course. 

The witness stated that during recent years there had been a large 
diminution in the number of cattle fed at Peoria, because of the fact 
that under the contract it was necessary to feed the cattle for a period 
of nine months. This made it necessary for them to continue the 
manufacture of liquor whether there was a demand for the goods or 
not, and they found that there was a loss in storing high-proof spirits 
not in demand, which more than compensated for the small amount 
of profit afforded by the keeping of cattle. This diminution would 
probably continue because of the growth of the custom of drying the 
slop by evaporation and selling it for export. (3509-3517, 3540- 
3544.) 


TESTIMONY FOR DEFENDANTS. 


145 


ADOLPH WOOLNER, JR. 

Adolph Woolner, jr., for nine years manager of the Atlas distillery, 
which has a capacity of 7,500 bushels in twenty-four hours, testified 
that there had been as many as 40,000 head of cattle fed in Peoria at 
one time, but at the date of testimony about 10,000 were being fed at 
Peoria and from 5,000 to 8,000 at Pekin. It was the aim to feed about 
a bushel of distillery waste per animal per day, equivalent, according 
to the witness, to about 400 pounds. Based on this weight, an animal 
would consume 98,400 pounds of slop in two hundred and forty days. 
A steer will gain in eight months an average of 400 pounds in weight. 
The witness figured that the excretions would amount to 98,000 
pounds, or for the entire year 120,000 pounds; therefore the discharge 
from 40,000 head of cattle would be 2,400,000 tons per year, and that 
from 10,000 cattle, the number fed at the date of testimony, would 
be 600,000 tons, so that the amount of pollution from the Peoria 
cattle sheds will vary between these two limits. (3689-3692.) 

ISHAM RANDOLPH. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Isham Randolph, chief engineer of the sanitary district of Chicago, 
was called as a witness on behalf of the defendants, and stated that his 
engineering experience began in 1868, when he entered the service of 
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad as axman. From that time until 
1880 he performed engineering services for various railroads, and then 
became chief engineer of the Chicago and Western Indiana Railroad 
and the Belt Railway of Chicago, remaining in that position four 
years. During the next two years he maintained an office for general 
engineering work in Chicago, and in 1886 entered the service of the 
Illinois Central Railroad and built the Chicago, Madison and North¬ 
ern and the Freeport and Dodgeville railroads. In 1888 he returned 
to private practice and was consulting engineer for various roads until 
1893, when he was elected chief engineer of the sanitary district of 
Chicago, holding this position at the date of the testimony. The 
duties of this office involve responsibility for all work coming under 
the term engineering, the preparation of plans and forms of contract, 
and the enforcement of contracts in connection with construction. 
(6607-6609.) 

The witness then described the condition of Chicago River from 
1880 until the opening of the drainage canal, and gave an outline of 
the sewerage system of Chicago and the effect of its discharge on 
Chicago River and Lake Michigan. (6609-6613.) 

The Illinois and Michigan Canal was then described, the witness 
stating that it was commenced in 1836 and completed in 1848. It 

irr 194—07-10 


146 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


extends from the south fork of South Branch of Chicago River in 
a southwesterly direction across the divide between the drainage 
areas of Lake Michigan and Illinois River to Peru, Ill., a distance of 
about 96 miles. The original canal had a navigable depth of about 
5 feet and a width of about 6 feet. The locks were 110 feet long and 
18 feet wide. Since 1884 the “ summit level,” or the 29-mile stretch 
of the canal extending from Chicago River to Lockport, had been 
supplied with water from Chicago River by pumps located at Bridge¬ 
port, in the city of Chicago. These pumps were supposed to have a 
capacity of 60,000 cubic feet per minute, but they did not accomplish 
this, and in practice the capacity ranged between 45,000 and 50,000 
cubic feet. At some seasons of the year the supply of water from 
Desplaines River was very small, and the canal was almost wholly 
dependent on the Bridgeport pumps. This water came partly from 
the stockyards branch and partly through South Branch of Chicago 
River from Lake Michigan. It flowed through the “ summit level” 
at a velocity of about 1 mile per hour, and was a black liquid of very 
foul odor. The water in the two pools at Joliet was as bad as that 
in the canal proper at some seasons of the year, when Desplaines 
River was low, because of the small amount of dilution. (6613-6616.) 

The following statements with reference to the drainage canal were 
then made by the witness: This canal was the outcome of Chicago’s 
necessities. The conditions affecting her water supply, owing to 
sewage pollution in Chicago River and the lake, had become steadily 
worse from the days when the city began to grow. Finally a crisis 
was reached, and the city council authorized the appointment of an 
expert commission to determine on a solution of the difficulties. In 
January, 1886, the commission was appointed, consisting of Rudolph 
Hering, Benezette Williams, and Samuel J. Artingstall, and as a 
result of its labors the State legislature in 1889 passed the sanitary- 
district law, under which a board of nine trustees was elected. This 
board adopted the project for a waterway from Chicago to Lock- 
port, which finally resulted in the construction of the drainage canal. 
It follows the general location of the old Illinois and Michigan Canal, 
connecting with the west fork of South Branch of Chicago River at 
Robey street, Chicago, and discharging into Desplaines River at Lock- 
port. (6616-6617.) 

The first 7 or 8 miles of the canal is through a clay formation which 
is easily dredged, and the cross section here is less at present than it 
will be ultimately. It is 110 feet wide on the bottom, the side slopes 
being 1 foot vertical to 2 feet horizontal, giving a surface width of 198 
feet with a minimum depth of water of 22 feet. Beyond this clay 
stretch a glacial drift was encountered which could not be dredged 

* 

In this material the canal was made full size, namely, 202 feet wide on 
the bottom, with side slopes of 2 feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical, a 


TESTIMONY OE I SHAM RANDOLPH. 


147 


surface width of water of 290 feet, and a maximum depth of 22 feet. 
The canal continues of this size for 5.3 miles to Willow Springs, where 
rock was encountered. From this point to the outlet at Lockport the 
channel is either wholly in rock or underlain by rock. The width of 
the canal contracts at this point to 160 feet and the grade is increased 
from 1 foot in 40,000 feet to 1 foot in 20,000 feet. The length of canal 
having this cross section is 14.95 miles. Through 7 miles of this dis¬ 
tance the sides are cut practically vertical, and wherever rock was not 
found at the surface walls were built upon rock foundation to a height 
of 5 feet above Chicago datum. (6617-6618.) 

The controlling works at Lockport consist of seven gates of the 
Stoney type and the Bear Trap dam. The gates have an opening of 
32 feet and operate under a maximum pressure of 62,000 pounds. The 


Bear Trap dam is a structure which can be raised or lowered and is in 
active use for regulating the flow from the canal, the gates being sel¬ 
dom required. The dam is the largest structure of the kind ever 
attempted, having a clear waterway of 160 feet with a possible oscilla¬ 
tion of 17 feet. The essential parts of the dam were then described 
by the witness, who stated that it was lowered and the water first 
turned into Desplaines River January 17, 1900, at 11.05 o'clock a. m. 


(6618-6621.) 


The witness then described the bridges erected across the canal and 
the improvement of Chicago River and the Desplaines River channel 
below the foot of the canal at Lockport. The cost of the construction 
up to the date of the testimony was stated by the witness to be 
$42,503,168. (6619-6624.) 

The original sanitary district included all of Chicago north of Eighty- 
seventh street and 42 square miles of country lying directly west of 
that portion of the city, embracing in all 185 square miles. In 1903 
the legislature of Illinois passed an act extending the boundaries of the 
sanitary district by adding 78.6 square miles of territory on the north, 
known as the north-shore district, and 94.5 square miles on the south, 
known as the Calumet district. The district now includes all of the 
city of Chicago, and ultimately the sewage from this entire area will be 
discharged into the drainage canal, which at that time will be widened 
so that it will have a discharge capacity of 825,000 cubic feet per min¬ 
ute. (6624-6625.) 

The witness then stated that the total population of the sanitary 
district was 1,942,000. In connection with the sewerage of the south¬ 
ern district it was proposed to reverse the flow of Calumet River by 
constructing a channel from Little Calumet River near Blue Island 
southwestward through what is known as Sag Valley to the drainage 
canal at or near Sag Bridge station on the Chicago and Alton Railroad. 
This channel will prevent the discharge of Calumet River into Lake 
Michigan at all times except in excessive floods. On the north it is 


148 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

proposed to extend North Branch of Chicago River as far as Evanston 
and make a connection with Lake Michigan at that point. It will be 
impossible to secure a gravity flow through this channel; therefore 
pumping works will he erected designed to lift 60,000 cubic feet per 
minute. (6627-6628.) 

The witness then gave the maximum and minimum discharge of the 
drainage canal during the years 1900-1902, inclusive, together with 
computations of dilution of sewage and weight and proportion of 
sewage matter therein. This information is included in Table 43. 
(6629-6633.) 

Table 43 .—Discharge and pollution of Chicago drainage canal. 


Year. 


1900 

1901 

1902 


Population of Chicago. 

Daily water consump¬ 
tion of city (gallons). 

Total. 

Discharging 
sewage into 
canal. 

Total. 

Per 

capita. 

a 1,098.575 

1,443,789 

322,599,030 

190 

b 1,758,000 

1,494,300 

342,813,449 

195 

b 1,818,000 

1,545,300 

358,101,710 

197 


Year. 

Discharge of channel at Dam No. 

1, from weekly averages (cubic 
feet per minute). 

Quantity 
of sewage 
discharged 
(gallons per 
day).c 

Proportion 
of sewage 
to mean 
discharge 
of canal. 

Weight of 
urine and 
fecal mat¬ 
ter (pounds 
per day). 

Proportion 
of urine 
and fecal 
matter to 
mean dis¬ 
charge of 
canal. 

Maxim urn. 

• 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

1900. 

351,088 

40.481 

233,970 

274,209,685 

1: 9.2 

3,880,183 

1:5,429 

1901. 

015, 392 

197,124 

277,153 

291,391,432 

1:10. 2 

4.015,931 

1:6,211 

1902. 

450,328 

244, 428 

295,527 

304,386, 454 

1:10. 4 

4,215,494 

1:6,310 


a Census. 


b Estimated. 


c Same as water consumption. 


The quantity of sewage stated in above table is determined by 
taking the amount of water consumed per capita in the city of 
Chicago, as shown by the reports of the water commissioner for the 
years mentioned. This sewage is compared with the mean dis¬ 
charge of water from the Illinois and Michigan Canal, the drainage 
canal, and Desplaines River where they come together at Dam No. 
1 in Joliet. The absolute weight of the urine (40 ounces per capita) 
and fecal matter (3 ounces per capita) given in the table is based on 
the testimony of Dr. Ravold and statistics gathered from other 
sources, and is compared with the total weight of water discharged 
in twenty-four hours from the three sources mentioned. (6634.) 

The witness then presented another table differing from the pre¬ 
ceding only in the method of determining the amount of sewage per 
day, which in this table is based on a clause in the report of the 
commission of hydraulic engineers of St. Louis, dated 1902, reading 
as follows: 

From observations made upon water systems of cities where the quantity of water 
used is measured, it appears that in large cities the average volumes needed for domes- 












































TESTIMONY OF ISHAM RANDOLPH. 


149 


tic, public, and manufacturing purposes are, respectively, 30 gallons, 5 gallons, and 
gallons per day for each inhabitant, and that any supply in excess of 60 gallons 
per day per capita goes to underground leakage and unnecessary waste. 

In Table 44 some of the data given in Table 43 are repeated for 
convenience of reference, and the quantity of sewage is based on a 
water consumption of 60 gallons per capita per day. (6636-6637.) - 


Table 44.— Pollution of Chicago drainage canal. 


Year. 

Popu¬ 
lation dis¬ 
charging 
sewage into 
the canal. 

Discharge of channel at Dam No. 
l,from weekly averages (cubic 
feet per minute). 

Quantity 
of sewage 
discharged 
(gallons 
per day). 

Propor¬ 
tion of 
sewage to 
mean 
discharge 
of canal. 

Weight of 
urine 
and fecal 
matter 
(pounds 
per day). 

Propor¬ 
tion of 
urine and 
fecal mat¬ 
ter to 
mean dis¬ 
charge 
of canal. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

1900. 

1,443,789 

1.494.300 

1.545.300 

351,088 

615,392 

450,328 

40,481 
197,124 
244,426 

233,976 

277,153 

295,527 

86,627,340 

89,658,000 

92,718,000 

1:29.1 

1:33.3 
1:34.3 

3,880,183 

4,015,931 

4,215,494 

1:5, 429 
1:6,211 
1:6,310 

1901. 

1902. 



The witness then presented Table 45, containing statistics of the 
population of Chicago. (6641.) 


1840 

1850 

1860 

1870 

1880 


Table 45.— Population of Chicago , 1840-190S. 


4, 470 
29, 963 
112,172 
298, 977 
503,185 


1890 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 


1, 099, 850 
1, 698, 575 
1, 758, 000 
1, 818, 000 
1,878, 000 


The figures for 1840 to 1900, inclusive, are from the census reports; 
those for 1901 to 1903, inclusive, are estimated. The proportion 
of the population discharging into the drainage canal was stated to 
be 87 per cent by the Federal census of 1890; 84 per cent by the 
school census of 1898, and 85 per cent by the present estimates, as 
shown in Table 43. 

The amount of sewage discharged per day was reduced to terms of 
gallons and cubic feet per minute, as follows: 


Table 46.— Sewage discharged into drainage canal. 


Year. 

Gallons per 
day. 

Gallons per 
minute. 

Cubic feet 
per 

minute. 

1900 . 

274,209,685 

190,423 

25,458 

1901 .✓. 

291,391,432 

202,355 

27,053 


304,386,454 

211,379 

28,259 






The witness presented another table showing the amount of 
excreta of 100,000 persons per year, and subsequently discussed 
the same with reference to the drainage canal and the dilution therein. 
(6644-6645.) 

He then presented Table 47, showing the number of inhabitants 
and estimated pollution of Illinois River basin. (6646.) 

































































150 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 47. — Pollution of Illinois River. 





Urban pop¬ 
ulation 
(towns of 
1,000 and 
over), 1900. 

Estimated water supply. 

Drainage basin. 

Area 
(square 
miles). 

Popula¬ 
tion (cen¬ 
sus of 1900). 

Gallons per day. 

Cubic feet 
per sec¬ 
ond. 

Per 

capita. 

Total. 

Desplaines River. 

Dupage River 

1,758 

124,855 
21,704 
192,220 
175,353 
68,001 
47,290 
81,782 
303,090 
54,574 
16,461 
46.362 
379,077 

70,748 
6,851 
44,681 
81,743 
27,631 
10,924 
28,519 
133,632 
14,344 
5,624 
15,778 
177.189 

99.3 

23.1 

53.2 

47.3 

70.1 

37.1 
40 

91. 4 
13.9 
32 

32 

65.5 

7,025,000 
158,000 
2,377,000 
3,866,000 
1,937,000 
405,000 
1,141,000 
11,215,000 
199,000 
180,000 
505,000 
11,606,000 
15,000,000 

10.86 
.24 
3. 66 
5.96 
2.99 
.62 
1.76 
17.28 
.30 
.28 
. 77 
17.89 
23.11 

Kankakee River. 

Fox River. 

Vermilion River. 

Mackinaw River. 

Spoon River. 

Sangamon River. 

Crooked Creek. 

McKees Creek. 

5,302 

2,097 

1,413 

1,182 

1,905 

5,592 

1,286 

Macoupin Creek. 

Illinois River (directly;. 

1,000 

Peoria, industries 


Total . 






1,511,387 

617,664 

65. 7 

55,614,000 

85. 72 




The discharge of the Illinois is estimated as follows: 


Discharge of Illinois River. 

Cubic feet 
per record. 

Discharge of Illinois River at Kampsville October 20, 1891 (according to 


United States engineers). 1, 452. 7. 

Less discharge of Illinois and Michigan Canal. 000 


Natural discharge of river at Kampsville. 852. 7 

Add for basin of Macoupin Creek. 147. 8 

Natural discharge of Illinois River. 1, 000 


The sewage produced by the urban population, based on water 
supply as shown in table, is 85.72 cubic feet per second, or, when 
reduced to a basis of 60 gallons per capita per day, 57.19 cubic feet 
per second. Dividing 1,000, the natural discharge of the river, by 
57.19, the amount of sewage, gives a ratio of pollution of 1 to 17.48, 
as against the drainage-canal pollution of 1 to 34.3. 

After discussing the items in the above table the witness stated 
that his conclusion was that the ratio of pollution in Illinois River 
due to the urban and rural population naturally draining into its basin, 
exclusive of all sewage coming from Chicago, was greater Than the 
present ratio, resulting from the combination of this natural pollution 
with the discharge from the drainage canal. The discharge from the 
canal being omitted, the proportion of pollution to diluting water is 
1 to 17.48, whereas the proportion in the canal (see Table 44) is 1 to 
34.3. (6647-6648.) 

The witness then described and discussed the physical characteris¬ 
tics of Desplaines and Illinois rivers throughout the length of their 
channels. (6650-6651.) 

He then presented a map showing the population of the drainage 
areas of Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers above St. Louis and 
stated that the population of the Illinois basin, exclusive of Chicago, 
was 599,751, and with Chicago included, 2,298,326; of the Mississippi 













































U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

WATER-SUPPLY PAPER NO. 194 PL. II 



PROFILE OF WATERWAY ALONG THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL, DESPLAINES RIVER, ILLINOIS RIVER, AND MISSISSIPPI RIVER, FROM LAKE MICHIGAN TO ST. LOUIS, MO. 













































































































































. .< J 


















I 


























* • 


















. 




























- 





















































TESTIMONY OF ISHAM RANDOLPH. 


151 


basin above Grafton, 1,839,586, and of the Missouri basin above the 
mouth of the river, 1,650,594, giving a total population above St. 
Louis of 5,788,506. (6653-6655.) 

The witness then entered into a detailed discussion of river flow 
and gaging, covering all the streams above mentioned. (6655-6667.) 
He introduced into evidence a profile of the entire waterway from 
Lake Michigan to Cairo, 111., which is reproduced herewith as 
PI. II. 

The witness then described some float measurements made for deter¬ 
mining the velocity of the river from Chicago to St. Louis. Wooden 
balls were put in the river at Lake street and allowed to float down to 
Robey street, a man following in a boat to ascertain the time required 
in transit. From Robey street to Lockport the velocity was com¬ 
puted from the known volume and cross section. From Lockport 
to St. Louis floats were used of the same general character as those 
described in the testimony of Mr. Van Ornum. These floats were 
followed throughout the distance, part of the time on shore, because 
a boat could not be taken through the rapids. They were kept going 
night and day except when accidents of any kind stopped the work; 
on such occasions they were taken out and the time noted. Through 
the rapids wooden balls were substituted for the floats. The river 
at the time of this measurement was at a fairly full stage, somewhat 
above that which might be called the mean stage, but not anything 
like a maximum flood flow. The results are contained in Table 48. 
(6667-6670.) 


Table 48 .—Results of float measurements from Lake Michigan to St. Louis. 


Lake street to Robey street 

Summit. 

Willow Springs. 

Controlling works. 

Joliet. 

Lake Joliet.. 

Through Lake Joliet. 

Kankakee cut-otT. 

Morris. 

Seneca. 

Marseilles. 

Ottawa. 

Utica. 

Peru. 

Henry dam. 

Lacon. 

Peoria. 

Pekin. 

Copperas Creek dam. 

Havana. 

Louderbach. 

Frederick. 

Beardstown. 

Lagrange dam. 

Griggsville. 

Pearl. 

Kampsville dam. 

Hardin. 

Hadleys... 

Grafton. 

Alton. 

Merchants’ Bridge. 

Eads Bridge. 


Interval. 

Corrected in¬ 
terval. 

Total time. 

Days. h. 

m. 

Days. 

h. 

m. 

Days. 

h. 

m. 

Days. 

0 5 

30 

0 

6 

52 

0 

6 

52 

0. 3 

5 

42 


5 

42 


12 

32 

.5 

7 

22 


7 

22 


19 

54 

.8 

18 

54 


18 

54 

1 

14 

48 

1. 6 

1 

58 


2 

28 

1 

17 

16 

1. 7 

1 

24 


1 

45 

1 

19 

1 

1. 8 

2 

15 


2 

49 

1 

21 

50 

1.9 

3 

40 


4 

35 

2 

2 

25 

2. 1 

8 

11 


10 

14 

2 

12 

39 

2.5 

7 

45 


9 

41 

2 

22 

20 

2.95 

6 

45 


8 

26 

3 

6 

46 

3.3 

3 

25 


4 

16 

3 

11 

2 

3. 45 

5 

55 


7 

24 

3 

18 

26 

3.75 

5 

30 


6 

52 

4 

1 

18 

4. 05 

1 0 

31 

1 

6 

39 

5 

7 

57 

5.35 

8 

48 


11 

0 

5 

18 

57- 

5.8 

2 21 

15 

3 

14 

34 

9 

9 

31 

9. 4 

10 

2 


12 

32 

9 

22 

3 

9.9 

13 

43 


17 

9 

10 

15 

12 

10. 65 

14 

31 


18 

9 

11 

9 

21 

11. 4 

15 

36 


18 

43 

12 

4 

4 

12. 15 

10 

0 


12 

30 

12 

16 

34 

12. 7 

1 

58 


2 

22 

12 

18 

56 

12.8 

10 

24 


13 

0 

13 

7 

56 

13. 35 

12 

53 


16 

6 

14 

0 

2 

14 

16 

52 


21 

5 

14 

21 

7 

14.9 

12 

52 


16 

5 

14 

13 

12 

15. 55 

12 

44 


15 

55 

16 

5 

7 

16.2 

10 

24 


13 

0 

16 

18 

7 

16. 75 

17 

47 


22 

14 

17 

16 

21 

17.7 

7 

40 


9 

35 

18 

1 

56 

18. 1 

6 

51 


8 

34 

18 

10 

30 

18. 45 


58 


1 

10 

18 

11 

40 

18.5 






















































152 


TESTIMONY OF RUDOLPH HERING. 


Counsel for the defense then directed the attention of the witness 
to various reports made by the health commissioner of the city of St. 
Louis, together with the resolutions' adopted by the city council and 
a draft of a bill introduced in Congress, all relating to the matter of 
pollution of St. Louis water supply by the effluent from Illinois River. 
(6672-6688.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 


The cross-examination of this witness brought out no new facts or 


opinions. 


RUDOLPH HERING. 


DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Rudolph Hering, a witness called in behalf of the defendants, 
qualified as an expert by making the following statements: He was 
a member of the firm of hydraulic and sanitary engineers composed of 
Rudolph Hering and George W. Fuller. He took the course in civil 
engineering at Dresden, Germany, in 1867, and after returning to 
America began his engineering work at Brooklyn, on Prospect Park, 
and then went to Philadelphia, on Fairmont Park. From 1873 to 
1880 he was first assistant engineer in charge of bridges and sewers 
in Philadelphia, and in the latter year was commissioned by the 
national board of health to examine and report on European sewer¬ 
age systems. Since that time lie had been consulting engineer for 
the waterworks and sewerage systems of many cities, including 
Philadelphia, Cleveland, Chicago, New York, Baltimore, New Orleans, 
and Washington. (6975-6978.) 

The witness stated that in March, 1886, he was engaged as chief 
engineer of the drainage and water-supply commission of the city of 
Chicago, and in that capacity made investigations with reference to 
obtaining pure water and scientific drainage for the city. A pre¬ 
liminary report was made in January, 1887, giving the general con¬ 
clusions which had been reached up to that time. The witness then 
read a part of this report, which appears in the record of testimony, 
pages 6980 to 6990. Commenting on the facts and conditions on 
which the conclusions were based, the witness stated that the propo¬ 
sition was somewhat novel, and that in order to reach a safe conclusion 
in regard to the size and other conditions for the proposed drainage 
canal it was necessary for him to study all the facts bearing on the 
subject which could be ascertained both in Europe and America. 
He found at the outset that the problem of water pollution was 
distinct from that of setting up a standard of purity based on the 
minimum allowable proportion of sewage. If the water is to be used 
for drinking, it should evidently be considered in a different light than 


TESTIMONY OF RUDOLPH HERING. 


153 


if mere inoffensiveness were required. The question was very differ¬ 
ent at that time from what it is at the present day, and the best 
information available was afforded by the observations of Dr. John 
Rauch, secretary of the State board of health of Illinois, who, in making 
investigations on the gradual change of the water of the old Illinois 
and Michigan canal after it entered Illinois River, had fixed a unit of 
flow of water equal to 180 cubic feet per minute for every thousand 
persons draining into the river at Chicago as sufficient to obviate any 
substantial injury to the water. From the results of other investiga¬ 
tions made by the witness, he concluded that the Chicago drainage 
canal should have a sufficient capacity to carry water at the rate of 
240 cubic feet per minute for each thousand persons. With reference 
to the subject of dilution in the above connection, the witness stated 
that if the foul water of a community is to enter a stream used for 
drinking purposes, it is imperative to purify either the water or the 
sewage, but if such stream is not used for water supply so complete a 
purification may not be required, as it is then necessary merely to 
prevent a nuisance. It is impossible to prevent all disease germs from 
going into a watercourse. The rain falling on the streets, fields, and 
forests and discharging into the streams must carry along the dust of 
the air and of the ground and myriads of bacteria, including disease 
germs. Parts of the intestinal discharges of animals, birds, and 
insects must also be washed in, and altogether much injurious matter 
is carried into watercourses by the rain; therefore, inasmuch as it is 
impossible to prevent river pollution, all surface-water supplies must 
be purified. (6990-6993.) 

After the report of the drainage and water-supply commission was 
published, the Massachusetts State board of health made some investi¬ 
gations, and from this information the witness had compiled Table 49, 
which he then presented. (6995.) 


154 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 49 .—Calculated composition of sewage of different degrees of dilution in a running 

stream. 


Amount of flowing 

Composition of 

sewage (parts per 


water. 


100,000). 



Cubic feet 
per second 
per 1,000 
persons. 

Gallons 
per capita 
per day. 

Ammonia. 

F-. 1 

Dissolved 

solids. 

Chlorine. 

Remarks. 

0.062 

40 

4.50 

0.90 

65.4 

12.6 


.077 

50 

3.60 

.72 

52.3 

10.1 


.093 

60 

3.00 

.60 

45.3 

8.4 


.108 

70 

2.57 

.52 

37.4 

7.2 


.124 

80 

2.25 

.45 

32.7 

6.3 


.140 

90 

2.00 

.40 

29.1 

5.6 


.155 

100 

1.80 

.36 

26.2 

5.0 


.186 

120 

1.50 

.30 

21.8 

4.2 

Dilution is 

.232 

150 

1.20 

.24 

17.4 

3.4 | 

offensive. 

.310 

200 

.90 

. 18 

13.1 

2.5 


.388 

250 

.72 

.14 

10.5 

2.0 


.465 

300 

.60 

.12 

8.7 

1.7 


.5 

323 

.5580 

.114 

8.10 

1.56 


1 

646 

.2790 

.0557 

4.05' 

.78 


1.5 

969 

.1860 

.0371 

2.70 

.52 


2 

1,292 

.1395 

.0278 

2.02 

.39 

i 

2.5 

1,615 

.1116 

.0223 

1.62 

.31 


3 

1,938 

.0930 

.0186 

1.35 

.26 


4 

2,584 

.0697 

.0139 

1.01 

.19 


5 

3,230 

. .0558 

.0111 

.81 

.16 


6 

3,876 

.0465 

.0093 

.67 

.13 


7 

5,522 

.0399 

.0080 

.58 

.11 


8 

5,168 

.0349 

.0070 

.51 

.10 


9 

5,814 

.0310 

. 0062 

.45 

.09 


10 

9,463 

.0279 

.0056 

.40 

.08 


15 

9,694 

.0186 

.0037 

.27 

.05 

Dilution is 

20 

12,926 

.0139 

.0028 

.20 

.04 

not of- 

30 

19,389 

.0093 

.0019 

.13 

.03 

tensive. 

40 

25,852 

.0070 

.0014 

.10 

.02 


50 

32,315 

.0056 

, .0011 

.08 

.02 


100 

64,630 

.0028 

.0006 

.04 

.01 



In discussing the above table, the witness stated that in applying 
the factors it is necessary to take into consideration each specific 
case, because no single rule applies to the great differences found 
in streams. He called attention to the two lines drawn across the 
table. Above the upper line conditions are indicated where the dilu¬ 
tion is in all cases offensive; below the lower line the dilutions expressed 
have never been found to give offense; between the two lines the con¬ 
ditions are debatable, and it is the duty of the engineer to select between 
these limits that dilution that conforms to local conditions. In con¬ 
nection with the drainage canal he had adopted the standard of 4 
cubic feet per second per thousand persons, because in the state of 
knowledge at that time he did not feel justified in recommending a less 
dilution. Subsequently, the amount was reduced to 3.33 feet per 
thousand persons, and on that basis the canal was constructed. (6996.) 

The witness then presented Table 50, based on population and flow 
of the drainage canal, showing approximate dilutions. (6997.) 











































TESTIMONY OF RUDOLPH HERING. 


155 


Table 50. —Flow of drainage canal. 


Year. 

Population 
discharging 
sewage 
into the 
canal. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Mean. 

Cubic feet, 
per minute, 
weekly- 
average. 

Cubic feet 
per second 
per 1,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

Cubic feet 
per minute, 
weekly 
average. 

Cubic feet 
per second 
per 1,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

Cubic feet 
per minute, 
weekly 
average. 

Cubic feet 
per second 
per 1,000 in¬ 
habitants. 

1900. 

1,44.1, 789 

351,088 

4.05 

40,481 

0.46 

233,976 

2.70 

1901. 

1,494,300 

615,392 

6.86 

197,124 

2.19 

277,153 

3.09 

1902. 

1,545,300 

450,328 

4.85 

244,426 

2.63 

295,527 

3.18 


The witness then stated that in figuring out the matter of dilution 
he had considered first the habitations and cities which lie alone: the 
drainage canal and Desplaines and Illinois rivers, in front of which 
the water was to pass. As the dilution would become greater by 
the inpourings of the tributaries of these rivers, it was to be presumed 
that what would be a satisfactory dilution in the canal would be still 
more satisfactory with the greater dilution below. The advances 
made in the subject of sewage disposal since his recommendations 
had not changed his views concerning the Chicago problem, and were 
he to make another recommendation it would be practically the 
same as that which had been carried out. (6998-7000.) 

The witness then introduced a chart, entitled 11 Schematic repre¬ 
sentation of the self-purification of the waters of Missouri, Mississippi, 
and Illinois rivers, between points indicated, based on the length of 
life of the typhoid bacillus as fixed by experiments made under the 
direction of Hiram F. Mills.-” This chart contained profiles of Mis¬ 
souri, Mississippi, and Illinois rivers above St. Louis, and the witness 
pointed out that the Missouri is the steepest of the three, falling from 
Omaha, at an elevation of 960 feet, to St. Louis, at an elevation of 
380 feet above sea level; the Mississippi falls from Minneapolis, at an 
elevation of 794 feet, to 380 feet at St. Louis; the Illinois and the 
drainage canal fall from an elevation of 578 feet at Lake Michigan to 
400 feet at Grafton and finally to 380 feet at St. Louis. The distance 
from Omaha or Minneapolis to St. Louis by water is about 680 miles 
and that from Lake Michigan to St. Louis by water is about 400 
miles. Therefore it will be seen that the velocity of Missouri River 
is the greatest of the three and that the Illinois is the flattest and 
has the lowest velocity. The chart also presented certain deductions 
made on the basis indicated in the title, namely, the longevity of the 
typhoid bacillus as determined by Hiram F. Mills. In Mills’s report 
it is attempted to prove whether typhoid germs would survive in Mer- 
rimac River water at the low temperature of the month ol November 
long enough to pass from the Lowell sewers to the service pipes in 
Lawrence. A series of experiments were made by the Massachusetts 
State board of health by inoculating water from the service pipe with 
typhoid-fever germs, keeping the water in a bottle surrounded by ice, 
































156 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


and each day taking out 1 c. c. and determining the number of 
typhoid organisms. The number continually decreased, but some 
survived about twenty-four days, as follows: 

Number of typhoid-fever germs surviving in water at about freezing point. 

First day. 6,120 i Fifteenth day. 100 

Fifth day. 3,100 Twentieth day. 17 

Tenth day. 490 Twenty-fifth day. 0 

The ordinates of the curves presented on the chart represented the 
relative number of typhoid bacilli still living at the various points 
indicated, it being assumed in the absence of other information that 
the number of germs is directly proportional to the population. So 
far as the average flow of water is concerned, Chicago is about 
eighteen and one-half days distant from St. Louis, Kansas City six 
and three-fourths days, Omaha eleven and six-tenths days, and Min¬ 
neapolis and St. Paul are about fifteen days. The conclusions to be 
drawn from the chart are that the relative proportions of typhoid 
bacilli arriving at St. Louis from populations on Illinois, Missouri, 
and Mississippi rivers, below Chicago, Omaha, and Minneapolis, are 
about as 13 to 96 to 107, respectively. These figures are merely the 
proportions. They indicate the relative frequency of the still viru¬ 
lent typhoid bacilli arriving at St. Louis from various cities on the 
three rivers, based on the population of the cities and the determi¬ 
nations made by Mills as above outlined. (7002-7003.) 

The witness expressed the opinion that the waters of Illinois River 
above Grafton, of Mississippi River at the same point, and of Missouri 
River above its mouth were not fit for domestic consumption in the 
raw state either before or after the opening of the Chicago drainage 
canal, and that the discharge of the drainage canal into Illinois River 
makes practically no difference in the method of construction or cost 
of operation of a suitable filtration system for St. Louis. Under the 
assumption that the water was to be taken from the present intake 
at Chain of Rocks, he added that in providing for such a filtration 
system he would first procure some satisfactory evidence as to the 
turbidity of the water, because that affects the manner of treatment 
more than anything else, and after that he would consider the pollu¬ 
tion of the river and the number and kind of bacteria contained in the 
water, because the treatment that would remove the suspended mat¬ 
ter from the water of Mississippi River at St. Louis would also remove 
the greater part of the dangerous bacteria. He stated that he would 
give no consideration to the sewage from Chicago, because it would 
be too small a factor in the problem to materially affect any recom¬ 
mendation; moreover, the operation of such a filter would not require 
a higher degree of skill or more expensive attendance under the present 
conditions than it would before the opening of the canal. (7000-7007.) 








TESTIMONY OF RUDOLPH HERING. 


157 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The witness reviewed the suggested measures presented in his report 
to the city in 1886, by which purification of the Chicago water supply 
could be brought about. Besides the construction of the canal, there 
was a proposition to remove the sewage to lands adjacent to the city 
and dispose of it by broad irrigation, and another to continue the dis¬ 
charge into Lake Michigan under much improved conditions, namely, 
that the intake for the water supply should be located as far as prac¬ 
ticable from the point of sewage discharge and that the sewage should 
be treated by screening so as to deprive it of the grosser pollution and 
in that way make it more unobjectionable and more rapidly dis¬ 
persed. He was of the opinion, however, that this was not a satisfac¬ 
tory method. He stated that discharge directly into the lake rather 
than by way of Chicago River was preferable because the river was 
loaded with an accumulation of organic matter, collected during those 
times when the flow was very slight, and whenever there was heavy 
rainfall all this accumulated matter would be carried out to one of the 
water intakes, whereas in the method of lake dilution there would be 
a continuous discharge and no sudden rush of an accumulation of 
filthy matter, so that its effects would cover smaller areas. He noted 
on one occasion, for example, the effect, of such a sudden discharge. 
Shortly after a freshet he followed the river water out into the lake 
until dark and computed that within an hour’s time, approximately, 
the water would reach the intake crib and then go to the pumping 
station and be delivered to the residents. He therefore returned 
to his home, which was located close to the pumping station, and 
observed the condition of the water in the bathroom during the entire 
night. Early in the morning the water running into the bath tub, 
which had been comparatively clear and pure, became fold smelling. 
(7021-7023.) 

The possible pollution of the Chicago water supply from the sewers 
of Milwaukee was discussed by the witness, who stated that the dis¬ 
tance was about 90 miles and that, according to observations, the veloc¬ 
ity of the currents in the lake sometimes reached 2 or 3 feet per second, 
though usually less. In response to requests of the cross-examiner he 
estimated that, with a current from the north having a velocity of 2 
feet per second, it would require seventy hours, or about three days, for 
the Milwaukee sewage to reach the Chicago intake, and he then stated 
that the assumption was false and that no Milwaukee sewage could 
reach the intakes, because the water near the lake shore does not move 
in a parallel direction to the shore, but there are cycloidal motions and 
the water passing the Milwaukee sewage outlet would be so dispersed, 
even though the winds were favorable, that that particular water would 
not reach Chicago for weeks and possibly months. (7025-7026.) 


158 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


JACOB A. HARMAN. 

Jacob A. Harman, called as a witness in behalf of the defendants, 
outlined an extensive engineering experience and stated that for the 
five years previous he had been consulting engineer to the State board 
of health of Illinois. The purport of the testimony was to show the 
flow of Illinois River and its various tributaries and to discuss the 
same. The full testimony occupies pages 6847 to 6868, and the most 
comprehensive results are contained in Table 51. 

The witness then stated that he had made an investigation of the 
sewerage system of St. Charles, Mo., March 10 and 11, 1903. This 
city is located on the left bank of Missouri River at a distance overland 
from the business district of St. Louis of about 16 miles. All the 
sewers of the city drain into the river. The land rises abruptly from 
the river bank, and, at a distance of three or four blocks back there¬ 
from, the elevation is 100 feet or more above the stream. The drain¬ 
age of all the business district and nearly all of the residence district 
therefore flows directly into the river. A part of the residence dis¬ 
trict drains into the Mississippi. St. Charles is not provided with a 
complete sewer system. There are four public sewers, ranging from 
three or four blocks to eight blocks in length, and many private sewers 
from hotels and business houses leading direct to the river. 

It was brought out on cross-examination that although less than 
one-third of the area of St. Charles is sewered a somewhat larger per¬ 
centage of the population is connected with sewers. (6863-6864, 
6867.) 

JOHN H. LONG. 


DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

John II. 1 jong, called as a witness in behalf of the defendants, quali¬ 
fied by stating that he was a teacher of chemistry at Northwestern 
University, Chicago, and had held such position for twenty-two years. 
Prior to that he had taught in Wesleyan University, at Middletown, 
Conn., and for seven years previous had been engaged in the study of 
chemistry. He graduated from the University of Kansas in 1887, 
and for three years thereafter had studied in the German universities 
at Tubingen, Wurzburg, and Breslau, lie further stated that he was 
a member of several American and foreign scientific societies, the 
president of the American Chemical Society, and the author of a num¬ 
ber of works on chemistry. His studies had been confined mainly to 
the lines of sanitary and physiological chemistry. Between 1885 and 
1890 he was chemist for the board of health of Chicago and since 1885 
had been chemist for the Illinois State board of health. (3984-3986.) 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


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159 
























































































160 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


<r 

It is apparent that the witness had had a long and intimate experi¬ 
ence with the general problems connected with the water supply and 
sewage disposal of the city of Cliicage and the Illinois River basin, as 
his testimony contains a large amount of historical matter in connec¬ 
tion with the development of both these improvements. (3986-3995.) 

The investigations of the witness, begun in 1885, included the exam¬ 
ination of a great many samples of water from the Chicago avenue, 
Evanston, Lakeview, and Hyde Park tunnels. (3995.) 

The next examinations, in 1886, comprised a study of samples of 
the river and canal water taken weekly from Bridgeport, Lockport, 
Joliet, Ottawa, La Salle, and Peoria. Another series of examinations 
of water taken from the same points began in December, 1886, and 
was continued through the cold months into March, 1887. The results 
of these examinations were published in the reports of the State board 
of health for that period. (3996-3997.) 

The next investigations were made two years later, beginning May 
1, 1888, and extending to about the middle of November. The sam¬ 
pling points in this series were as follows, including, besides those 
above mentioned, several points below Peoria to the mouth of the 
river at Grafton: Bridgeport, Lockport, Joliet, Morris, Ottawa, La 
Salle, Henry, Peoria, Pekin, mouth of Copperas Creek, Havana, 
Beardstown, Pearl, and Grafton. During the same investigation a 
number of samples were taken from Dupage, Kankakee, Fox, Ver¬ 
milion, Little Vermilion, and Sangamon rivers, tributaries of the Illi¬ 
nois. All these samples were taken from appropriate points above 
the confluence of each stream with Illinois River. These results were 
published in the preliminary report of the State board of health for 
1889. The witness stated that he wished to explain this preliminary 
report, which had been extensively quoted by the witnesses for the 
plaintiff and attracted considerable attention at the time it was issued. 
It was brought out by the secretary of the State board of health for 
the use of some committee of the State legislature in a very great 
hurry. The work of printing the report was begun but a few days 
after the completion of the last analysis, so that the work must be 
regarded as only of a preliminary character, and while the details 
were complete the text and explanatory matter was comparatively 
meager. The full report, which was subsequently put into the hands 
of the secretary, was lost in some manner and never printed. The 
results in the preliminary report are essentially correct so far as they 
could be made so in the extremely limited time for preparation, and 
the averages of results are practically correct. (3996-3999.) 

The next investigation was made of the water in the neighborhood 
of the Bridgeport pumps, Chicago, in the winter of 1890 and 1891, the 
object being to show the relative amounts of pollution coming from 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


16J 


the stock yards and from the rest of the city. Samples were taken from 
the large sewers leading from the stock yards, and from the so-called 
Brennock sewer and the Ashland avenue, Halstead street, and Thirty- 
ninth street sewers, all representing the bulk of the sewage aside 
from that contributed by the stock yards. (3999-4000.) 

The witness was then requested to take each series of investiga¬ 
tions and describe fully how the samples were collected and deliv¬ 
ered and where the analyses were made, stating in reply that those 
for the series of 1886 were collected by Doctor Rauch, secretary of 
the State board of health, through the health officers of various 
towns, and sent in jugs packed in boxes to the laboratory of the 
Northwestern University Medical School. The later samples were 
collected in the same way and sent to the Northwestern University 
School of Pharmacy. He then proceeded to describe the methods 
used in making and interpreting the analyses and the importance of 
the various determinations. (4000-4010, 4026-4027.) 

The witness then recited the results of his examinations of the 
water of the Illinois and Michigan Canal and Desplaines and Illinois 
rivers, made in 1886. These results are given as averages of twelve 
samples taken at each of the sampling points and are included in 
Table 52. (4028-4029.) 


Table 52 .—Average results of partial analyses of water from Illinois and Michigan Canal 
and Desplaines and Illinois rivers during the summer of 1886. 

[Parts per million.] 


Place. 




Bridgeport 
Lockport.. 

Joliet. 

Ottawa.... 
Peoria. 


Distance 

below 

Bridgeport 

(miles). 

Albumi¬ 

noid 

ammonia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Oxygen 

consumed. 

0 

1.033 

26. 563 

26. 20 

29 

.753 

12. 733 

11.01 

33 

.432 

9. 426 

9.34 

81 

.243 

.413 

5.30 

159 

. 194 

.027 

4.81 


In interpreting the results set forth in the above table, the witness 
stated that the analyses show beyond question a marked destruc¬ 
tion of organic matter in the water flowing between Bridgeport and 
Peoria. In the opinion of the witness, this destruction was due 
mainly to bacterial oxidation. The water at Peoria was practically 
potable and actually used by a large number of people. 

The results of the investigations in the winter of 1886-87 are set 
forth in Table 53. (4030-4031.) 

























162 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 53 .—Average results of partial analyses of water from Illinois and Michigan Canal 
and Desplaines and Illinois rivers during the winter of 1886-87. 

[Parts per million.] 


Place. r 

Distance 
below 
Bridgeport 
(miles). 

Albumi¬ 

noid 

ammonia. 

Free am¬ 
monia. 

Oxygen 

consumed. 

Bridgeport. 

0 

3.7 

9.7 

22. 4 

Joliet. 

33 

2.2 

6. 5 

11.3 

Ottawa. 

81 

.75 

4.7 

9.0 

Peoria. 

159 

.43 

1.7 

6. 45 


Referring to the above results, the witness stated that there was a 
very considerable destruction of organic matter in the water as it 
flows from Bridgeport to Peoria, but much less than that shown in 
Table 52, indicating unmistakably that oxidation is much less marked 
in cold than in warm weather. 

The witness then presented a summary of the results of examina¬ 
tions made from May to October, 1888, and during 1889. (4031-4040.) 

Table 54 .—Analyses of water from Illinois and Desplaines rivers at designated points, 

May to October, 1888, and during 1889. 


[Parts per million.] 



Number of 
analyses. 

Total 

solids. 

Suspended 

matter. 

Albuminoid 

ammonia. 

Free ammonia. 


1888. 

1889. 

1888. 

1889. 

1888. 

1889. 

1888. 

1889. 

1888. 

1889. 

Bridgeport. 

29 

9 

471.2 

376.6 

129.2 

27.2 

2.558 

2.806 

12. 253 

8.925 

Lockport. 

24 

8 

431. 2 

408.6 

69.80 

24.6 

1.990 

2. 489 

10. 882 

8.149 

Joliet. 

26 

8 

442.7 

432. 8 

107.9 

55.5 

1.681 

2.666 

8.932 

8. 488 

Morris. 

24 

8 

355.9 

325.2 

30. 85 

29.1 

.707 

1.587 

4.107 

4.716 

I/a Salle.. 

23 

9 

345.7 

417.6 

50. 30 

93.8 

.526 

.637 

.636 

1. 456 

Henry. 

19 

5 

306.0 

316.0 

27.50 

30.9 

.481 

. 404 

.467 

1.059 

Peoria. 

19 

6 

329. 75 

331.0 

54. 27 

26.9 

.522 

.549 

* .210 

1.637 

Pekin. 

16 

6 

353.0 

352.0 

84.3 

43.5 

.650 

1.015 

.645 

1.591 

Havana. 

25 

9 

301.78 

354. 4 

45.4 

.8 

.430 

.585 

.342 

1.078 

Beardstown. 

24 

6 

390.0 

317.8 

84.7 

56.3 

.380 

.357 

.202 

.762 

Grafton. 

12 

9 

301.6 

410.8 

50.3 

44.6 

.483 

.722 

.095 

.875 

Alton. 

15 

8 

278.6 

309.9 

75.2 

61.3 

.356 

.396 

.166 

. 422 



Nitrates. 

Oxygen consumed. 

1888. 

1889. 

1888. 

1889. 

Bridgeport. 

0 

0 

23.113 

26. 502 

Lockport. 

0 

0 

16. 230 

22. 820 

Joliet. 

0 

0 

14. 301 

21.717 

Morris. 

.380 

0 

10.92 

10. 696 

La Salle. 

1. 037 

.942 

8. 558 

8. 582 

Henry. 

.683 

.962 

8.657 

8.626 

Peoria. 

.892 

.510 

9. 769 

9. 611 

Pekin. 

.795 

1.259 

9. 410 

13. 358 

Havana. 

.731 

.414 

8. 142 

9.234 

Beardstown. 

.620 

.996 

7.354 

5. 505 

Grafton. 

.582 

.087 

7. 300 

9. 818 

Alton. 


.317 

7.356 

7. 562 


Chlorine. Hardness as CaC 03 . 


1888. 


46. 811 
46. 120 
43.658 
32.149 
19.717 
17.660 
12. 358 
16.152 
11.583 
7.524 
9. 205 
4. 083 


1889. 


1888. 


62.934 
56.083 
57. 17 
28. 748 
13.105 

11. 691 

12. 860 
11. 792 

9. 277 
6.933 
7.523 
5. 834 


201.3 

207.7 

216.8 

214.8 

211.7 
202. 4 

199.7 
204.6 
204.2 

204.9 
242. 4 
169. 4 


1889. 


These results, according to the witness, show a purification of the 
river between Bridgeport and Grafton. The diminution in organic 
matter is due to two important factors—the dilution of the stream by 
water from various tributaries and the destruction of organic matters 




























































































































TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


by oxidation, that term being used in a broad sense. Oxidation is 
much more important than dilution, as indicated by the change in 
chlorines, a condition being finally reached in which the organic mat¬ 
ter is not greater in amount than in the unpolluted streams com¬ 
monly found in that part of the country. 

The witness then presented the residts of the examination of sam¬ 
ples of water taken from important tributaries of Illinois River at 
weekly intervals from May 4 to September 21, 1888. The means of 
these results are given in Table 55. (4040-4071.) 

Table 55. —Average results of analyses of weekly samples of water from Illinois River 

tributaries at designated points and dates in 1888. 


[Parts per million.] 


Tributary. 

Place of collec¬ 
tion. 

Period included 
in average. 

Number of anal¬ 
yses. 

GO 

S 

o 

GO 

c3 

O 

Suspended 

solids. 

Nitrogen as— 

Oxygen con¬ 

sumed. 

Chlorine. 

Hardness. 

Albuminoid 

ammonia. 

Free ammo¬ 
nia. 

Nitrates. 

Dupage River... 

% 

Channahon... 

Aug. 10-Sept. 21 

7 

294.7 

14.1 

0. 346 

0. 417 

0. 307 

4. 743 

5. 786 

244.8 

Kankakee River. 

Wilmington .. 

May 4-Sept. 21 

19 

251.4 

35.6 

.585 

. 114 

.094 

12. 661 

1.015 

164. 1 

Fox River. 

Ottawa. 

May 14-Sept. 17 

18 

330. 3 

46. 3 

. 463 

.278 

.027 

7. 066 

4. 974 

242.1 

Verm i 1 io n 

La Salle. 

May 7-July 16 

7 

450. 6 

87.8 

.341 

.049 

3.348 

6.914 

5. 461 

255.8 

River. 












Little Vermil- 

.do. 

.do. 

7 

375. 1 

30.8 

. 411 

. 180 

. 362 

7.15 

5. 664 

210.2 

ion River. 












Sangamon 

Chandlerville. 

July 10-Sept. 3 

8 

317.8 

70.7 

.285 

.053 

.755 

5. 480 

3.609 

212.0 

River. 













In explaining the mean of the determinations of samples from 
Dupage River the witness stated that the average given includes only 
the last seven determinations—namely, from August 10 to Septem¬ 
ber 21—because there was some uncertainty about the point of collec¬ 
tion of the samples taken prior to August 10, and therefore he had 
omitted them in making up the summary. Inasmuch as the results 
of the individual analyses are not given for Dupage River in this 
review, it should be stated that the samples taken previous to August 
10 indicated a far higher degree of pollution than those which are 
actually included in the mean, and if all were included—that is, if the 
average was made from the results of the 21 analyses reported—the 
amounts would be greatly increased. The suspended solids, albumi¬ 
noid ammonia, and oxygen consumed would be increased about 25 
per cent, the nitrates 100 per cent, the chlorine 400 per cent, and the 
free ammonia 600 per cent. The mean actually used by the witness 
does not include the spring and early summer samples, and unless 
this is understood errors may arise in the comparison of the mean for 
Dupage River with that of the other tributaries. In order that there 
may be no errors from such a comparison, a statement of the period 
during which the samples were taken to make up each average is 
included in the table. 































164 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness then stated that a comparison of the results of the 
analyses of Illinois River water taken above Grafton with the results 
in Table 55 indicated that a condition of organic purification at its 
mouth had been reached comparable with or similar to that found in 
the tributaries; in fact, that this reduction had proceeded to a point 
at which apparently the limit of oxidation of the organic matter had 
been reached, and the organic residues that were left were of a stable 
type, very resistant to all oxidizing influences, a condition character¬ 
istic of organic matter of vegetable rather than of animal origin. It 
was further stated by the witness that the water at the mouth of Illi¬ 
nois River is better than that of Kankakee, Fox, and Little Vermilion 
rivers, and that the average of all the results from the tributaries 
showed a condition of organic impurity as great as that of the Illinois 
at its mouth. (4072-4076.) 

Continuing his discussion of the results for 1888 and 1889, the wit¬ 
ness stated that Table 54 shows a considerable reduction of organic 
contamination between Bridgeport and Grafton, although much less 
in 1889 than in 1888. The difference is particularly noticeable in the 
oxygen consumed and the albuminoid ammonia and in a less degree 
in the free ammonia. These three determinations are particularly 
instructive in the samples taken at Pekin during the winter. Whereas 
in the summer the amounts of organic matter as disclosed by these 
determina tions do not appear to be excessive, during the winter of 1888 
and 1889 the evidence shows a largely increased organic contamina¬ 
tion, the explanation for which is not difficult. During the summer, 
in the stretch of river between Peoria and Pekin, which is nearty 
level for 8 or 10 miles, an enormous bacterial or fermentative decom¬ 
position of organic matter occurs, as is shown by the rapid evolution 
of gases and the general appearance of the stream, so that roughly 
this stretch may be compared to a great septic tank in which hundreds 
of tons of organic matter are constantly undergoing decomposition. 
This rate of decomposition varies according to the temperature, and 
therefore in the winter season the rate is much lower, so that at Pekin, 
below the distilleries and cattle sheds of Peoria, the enormous pollu¬ 
tion, as shown by residual albuminoid ammonia and .oxygen con¬ 
sumed, indicates fresh and recent additions. The consideration of 
these figures shows that beyond any question whatever the addition 
of filth at Peoria is a very important factor* in accounting for the 
organic matter in the river below. Another feature of importance 
is the high free and albuminoid ammonia and oxygen consumed in the 
samples taken from Illinois River at Grafton, where the individual 
analyses show great variations. In the last examinations, made in 
March, 1899, these factors were unusually high. It is evident that at 
that time the river must have received a greatly increased amount of 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


165 


contamination, possibly from the breaking up of ice and the washing 
down of accumulated filth. (4079-4081.) 

The witness then testified with reference to some investigations 
made in the winter of 1890 and 1891, to determine, if possible, the 
proportion of organic matter discharged from the sewers of the city to 
that from the stock yards and the proportion passing the pumps at 
Bridgeport. Altogether about 130 analyses were made. The water 
was collected daily through a considerable period at fifteen-minute 
intervals. The collections were united in large hogsheads, thoroughly 
mixed, and a -composite sample taken each day for analysis. The 
analyses were made to determine the total organic matter as accurately 
as possible, and also the nitrogen, from which a check calculation was 
subsequently made. As a result of these examinations, the witness 
estimated that the organic matter discharged from the city and the 
stock-yard sewers in the neighborhood of the Bridgeport pumps 
amounted approximately to 240 tons daily. The examinations were 
made as follows: Measured portions of the sample were evaporated 
to dryness in a platinum dish and the residue incinerated by what is 
known as the Drown method. In all cases this test was made, from 
500 cubic centimeters to 1 liter of sewage being used, according to its 
concentration. A determination of the total organic nitrogen was 
made by the Kjeldahl process. Similar examinations were made of 
the water as it passed the Bridgeport pumps to determine what part 
of the organic matter was probably decomposed within the city and 
what part actually passed through the pumps into the canal. It was 
found in one series of investigations that about five-sixths of the sew¬ 
age passed through the pumps, the remainder being decomposed 
inside the city. In the warmer months a very much larger propor¬ 
tion of the organic matter was decomposed in the city than in the 
colder months. (4095-4098.) 

The witness then stated that a comparison of the results obtained 
in the examinations of 1886 with those of 1888 and 1889 indicated 
increased pollution of Illinois River at Peoria. (4098-4099.) 

In the summer of 1899 the witness was authorized to begin a chem¬ 
ical examination of the waters of Illinios River and its tributaries and 
the Illinois and Michigan Canal. Before beginning the analyses he 
made a trip of inspection down the river from Bridgeport to Grafton 
in company with Jacob A. Harman, engineer of the State board of 
health. The trip was made for the purpose of familiarizing the two 
officials with the locations and general conditions along the river and 
of engaging water takers to obtain samples of water from the various 
points and ship them to Chicago. The points selected are shown in 
Table 56. (4104-4108, 4121-4122.) 


166 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 56. —Sampling points in Illinois River basin, 1899. 


Sampling point. 

Collector. 

Num¬ 
ber of 
sam¬ 
ples. 

Remarks. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at 

Frank Wright. 

21 

50 feet west of pumping station. 

Bridgeport. 



200 feet east of main bridge. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at 

P. O’Brien. 

22 

Lockporf. 

Desplaines River at Libertyville. .. 

Clare Sherman. 

4 

Above stone bridge north of town. 
Basin above city. 

Wagon bridge south of city. 

Desplaines River at Lockport. 

Desplaines River at Joliet. 

P. O’Brien. 

B. F. Long. 

27 

17 

22 

Illinois River at Morris. 

Dr. H. M.T'erguson.. 

Illinois River at Ottawa. 

Dr. W. A. Pike. 

22 

200 yards above mouth of Fox 
River. 

600 feet above Vermilion River. 

Illinois River at La Salle 

C. 11. Nicolet. 

21 

Illinois River at Henry 

11. J. Gregory. 

19 

600 feet above dam above town. 

Illinois River above Peoria. 

C. F. Hixon.. 

15 

At the Narrows, Averyville. 

Illinois River below Peoria 

Henry Ocker. 

21 

Opposite Wesley. 

Below outlet of cattle sheds. 

Illinois River below Pekin 

H. D. Jensen. 

19 

Illinois River at Havana. 

S. F. Kyle. 

2 

200 yards above wagon bridge. 
Above Spoon River during remain¬ 
der of sampling period. 

At Alton Railroad bridge. 

Illinois River above Havana. 

.do. 

16 

Illinois River at Pearl.. 

E. II. Chandler. 

18 

Illinois River at Grafton. . 

F. M. Calhoun. 

21 

1£ miles, above town. 

Near the c ; ty. 

Kankakee River at South Bend, 

Dr. G. W. Van Ben- 

3 

Ind. 

Kankakee River below Wilming- 

schotten. 

C. D. Cassingham. 

9 

ton. 




Fox River at McHenry. 

Fox River at Ottawa.. 

Dr. C. H. Fegers. 

Dr. W. A. Pike.. 

3 

6 

100 yards above Rock Island 
bridge, temporary station; after¬ 
wards from Fox River feeder. 

Vermilion River at Pontiac. 

Dr. J. J. Stites. 

3 

Vermilion River at La Salle. 

C. II. Nicolet. 

8 

2 miles above city. 

Spoon River at Dahinda. 

Dr. J. B. Bedford_ 

3 

Spoon River at Havana. 

S. F. Kyle. 

4 

Several hundred feet above city. 

Sangamon River at Mahomet. 

Dr. J. 11. Gardiner_ 

3 

Sangamon River 200 yards above 

G. P. Hollingsworth.. 

7 


mouth. 



Mississippi River at Grafton. 

F. M. Calhoun. 

13 

Above mouth of Illinois River. 

Dupage River at Wheaton. 

Dr. C. F. Blanchard.. 

3 

Mackinaw River at Kappa. 

Dr. R. E. McKenzie.. 

2 



In this series of investigations two samples of water were taken at 
each point, one in a gallon bottle for chemical analysis and the other 
in a 6-ounce bottle for the bacteriological examination. The methods 
of sampling and the precautions taken against infection coincided 
with those usually prescribed. The bacterial sample was placed in 
a small tin can and this in a larger can, the inner can being surrounded 
with ice. The samples were sent to Professor Long’s laboratory by 
express, the quickest route being taken in every case. When the 
samples were received at the laboratory they were marked with serial 
numbers for identification. The large sample was immediately sub¬ 
jected to analysis, while from the smaller one was taken a portion of 
the water for that part of the biological examination carried on by 
Doctor Long and the remainder turned over to Dr. Robert F. Zeit, 
biologist, who occupied quarters in the same building. (4111-4114, 
4119-4120.) 

The witness then described the variations in the methods of analysis 
used in this period of the work from those described for former periods. 
The Gries method was used to determine nitrites and the phenol- 
sulphonic method for nitrates. In some cases total organic nitrogen 































































TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


167 

was determined by the Kjeldahl process. In addition to the generally 
recognized chemical tests, the witness made certain bacteriological 
examinations, such as the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter, 
the coagulation of milk, the amount of gas formed in the fermenta¬ 
tion of glucose broth, and the production of indol. In Table 57 are 
contained averages of weekly analyses of water made according to the 
above-stated plan from each of the sampling points. The results 
recited by the witness consisted of the individual analyses, and the 
reader is referred to the record, pages 4130-4157, or to the special 
report of the Illinois State board of health for 1901 for a complete 
statement. The chemical averages given in Table 57 are in nearly all 
cases representative of the actual results. The bacteriological data, 
however vary more widely and the averages given are of less value— 
so much less in the statements of bacteria per cubic centimeter that 
the extreme counts are given in all cases. 

There was a great diminution in organic pollution of Illinois River 
between Bridgeport and Avervville, as shown by the decrease in the 
amounts of oxygen consumed, albuminoid ammonia, and free ammo¬ 
nia, and the increase in nitrates. The amount of oxygen consumed 
by the river water above Peoria does not differ appreciably from that 
shown by the tributaries of the Illinois. The same is true of the albu¬ 
minoid ammonia, while the amount of this ingredient below Peoria is 
nearly as great as that at Bridgeport. It was further pointed out 
that after passing Peoria the free ammonia increased from less than 1 
part to over 4 parts per million, while the oxygen consumed increased 
in unfiltered water from 6 to 17 parts per million and in filtered water 
from 5| to 13 parts per million, showing that a very great amount of 
organic matter is added to the river from the industries at Peoria. 
Down the river from Peoria there is a gradual decrease in the amount 
of oxygen consumed by the water and in the free and albuminoid 
ammonia present, indicating that the same processes of purification 
are effectual in the stretch of the river below Peoria as above. The 
determinations show, according to the witness, that by the time the 
water reaches Grafton the organic pollution is not essentially different 
from that observed in the tributaries of the Illinois. Taken as a 
whole, the tables disclose two main sources of contamination, namely, 
the sewage from Chicago and the industrial wastes from Peoria. In 
the opinion of the witness, the Peoria industrial wastes, rather than 
the Chicago sewage, constitute the main factor in the contamination 
of Illinois River at its mouth. (4160-4162.) 


Table 57. —Averages of results of weelcly analyses of water from Illinois River drainage area at stated points, 1899. 

[Chemical results in parts per million.] 0 


168 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


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TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 169 

The witness then compared the results of analyses of samples taken 
from Desplaines River at Joliet with those from Illinois River at 
Wesley, below Peoria, and pointed out that the amount of albuminoid 
ammonia is greater at Wesley. As indicated by the oxygen con¬ 
sumed, the amount of organic matter in the water at Wesley is nearly 
as great as that at Joliet. This apparent discrepancy was explained 
by the witness to be due to the fact that the albuminoid-ammonia 
determination is a measure of the nitrogenous matter, whereas the 
oxygen-consumed determination measures the carbonaceous matter. 
As the waste from Peoria is known to be largely nitrogenous, the 
albuminoid ammonia would be relatively greater at Peoria, while the 
carbonaceous matter would be predominant at Joliet. Concerning 
the water above Peoria the witness asserted that it was not essentiallv 
different from the waters of the ordinary streams of the State of 
Illinois and no more contaminated than might be expected of a 
water which had passed through soil rich in organic matter. He then 
compared the water from the Illinois above Peoria with that of Fox 
River and stated that the Fox at Ottawa contains as much organic 
matter as the Illinois at Peoria. Free ammonia in Fox River is very 
much less than that at Peoria, but the albuminoid ammonia is almost 
as great. Comparing conditions at La Salle and Pekin, the witness 
stated that the amount of organic matter at Pekin, as indicated by 
the albuminoid ammonia, is much greater than at La Salle, while the 
free ammonia at La Salle is greater than that at Pekin, indicating 
that the oxidation of organic matter at La Salle is the more nearly 
complete. If, however, the contamination be measured by the oxy¬ 
gen consumed, the condition at the two places is similar. Com¬ 
paring the waters of Illinois River above Peoria with those above 
Grafton, the witness stated that, as measured by the figures for oxygen 
consumed and for free and albuminoid ammonia, there is somewhat 
more organic pollution indicated above Peoria than at Grafton. 
He then made a comparison bet ween the water above Peoria and that 
of the Mississippi above Grafton, stating that the oxygen-consumed 
determinations show that Mississippi River water at Grafton con¬ 
tains more organic matter than the Illinois, while the two compare 
very closely when measured by the albuminoid-ammonia tests. 
Other determinations show that in the Illinois at Grafton there is evi¬ 
dence of a large amount of nitrogenous matter which has undergone 
oxidation. From all the above considerations the witness concluded 
that the organic matter discharged at Bridgeport into the Chicago 
drainage canal has undergone practically complete oxidation before 
it has reached the mouth of Illinois River, because at this point he 
could find no more organic matter than might readily be accounted 
for by that discharged from the tributaries and from contamination 
at Peoria. (4163-4166.) 


170 


POLLUTION OF FIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness stated that the bacteriological results agree with the 
chemical results. (4167-4170.) 

He then read into the record the results of his examinations during 
1900. The averages are reproduced in Table 58. (4172-4205.) 

The witness stated that Table 58 discloses considerably less organic 
contamination in both canals at Bridgeport than appeared during the 
series of 1899. At Morris, where there is a considerable mixing of 
waters from both canals, the amounts of free and albuminoid ammonia 
are lower than those for 1899. When Wesley is reached there is a 
great increase in the figures for all constituents, being more marked in 
oxygen consumed and free and albuminoid ammonia. At Pearl the 
condition of the water is as good as that shown in many of the tribu¬ 
taries, but at Grafton the amount of organic matter is slightly greater 
than at Pearl. In the opinion of the witness the point of greatest im¬ 
portance in the spring series of analyses was the very marked increase 
of organic matter at Peoria and Wesley, as compared with the amount 
found at points above during the same examination. The witness 
compared the conditions at Wesley and at Morris for the purpose of 
showing that the organic matter is greater at the former place; another 
comparison showed that the water at Morris is purer than at Grafton. 
Comparing the conditions at Morris in 1899 and the spring of 1900 the 
witness stated that the amount of organic matter was less at the later 
date. This was true at Wesley also and in general throughout the 
course of the river, except at Grafton, where more organic matter 
seemed to be present in 1900 than in 1899. The river was high during 
the spring of 1900, and therefore the comparison between the waters 
of the river at that time and during the summer conditions which pre¬ 
vailed in 1899 was not fair. (4181-4185.) 

Continuing with a discussion of the results of examinations made 
during the summer of 1900, the witness stated that it was shown at the 
outset that there was a lower initial contamination of the water at 
Bridgeport than in 1899, and that the data further showed a gradual 
and continuous diminution in the factors, indicating organic contami¬ 
nation as the river was descended—a diminution far greater than could 
be accounted for by the amount of dilution entering the main stream 
from its tributaries. The water from Illinois River above Peoria, 
according to the results for oxygen consumed and lor free and 
albuminoid ammonia, had no greater degree of contamination than is 
ordinarily found in the tributary waters of the Illinois. At Wesley 
there was a remarkable increase in the organic pollution, amounting 
to several hundred per cent, as shown by the free and albuminoid 
ammonia determinations. It is known that the contamination enter¬ 
ing the river at Wesley is largely nitrogenous, and therefore there was 
at this point a much greater increase in the albuminoid and free 
ammonia than in the oxygen consumed. 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG 


171 


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172 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Below Wesley the pollution decreased steadily and at Pekin the 
albuminoid ammonia had been reduced to a point which was compar¬ 
able with that found in ordinary river waters of the State, and beyond 
which the reduction does not commonly proceed for the reason that 
the organic substances remaining are of the comparatively stable types, 
which are not subject to great reduction by bacterial oxidizing agents. 
In the case of the free ammonia, however, the witness stated that as this 
substance does undergo change there was a progressive improvement 
or disappearance by oxidation to the mouth of the river. The figures 
for the oxygen consumption indicated a similar condition, the amount 
lessening from Pekin to Grafton, where it corresponded to that shown 
by the waters of the tributaries entering the Illinois. (4209-4210.) 

The witness then drew several comparisons from his table, begin¬ 
ning with a calculation of the combined flow through the Chicago 
drainage canal and the Illinois and Michigan Canal. According to the 
observations of the engineering department of the sanitary district of 
Chicago, as reported by the chief engineer, 16 per cent of the flow of 
water from Lake Michigan into Desplaines River went through the 
Illinois and Michigan Canal and 84 per cent through the drainage 
canal. If it were assumed that all of the water passed through one 
channel, the volume being equivalent to the volume flowing through 
both, the constituents in that channel would be as follows, in parts 
per million: Albuminoid ammonia, 1.13; free ammonia, 3.9; oxygen 
consumed, 7.46; chlorine 23.5. These numbers may be taken as rep¬ 
resenting the composition of the total flow through the two channels. 
A comparison of these numbers with the data for the water at Joliet 
showed a discrepancy, which was accounted for by the witness as being 
due to an imperfect mixture of the Desplaines and canal waters. 
Because of this discrepancy the Joliet collection was not considered 
in preparing the series of charts that were then presented by the wit¬ 
ness, based on the results of analyses made during the summer of 1900, 
showing amounts of albuminoid and free ammonia, oxygen consumed, 
and chlorine at the various sampling points from Bridgeport to Graf¬ 
ton. As the values expressed in these charts are included in Table 58, 
they are not reproduced. (4210-4223.) 

Professor Long then testified that he had made further chemical 
surveys in 1901, from September to December, inclusive, and in 1902 
during February and March, the sampling points being IllinoisRiver 
above its confluence with the Mississippi, Mississippi River above the 
mouth of the Illinois, and Missouri River above its confluence with 
the Mississippi. The results of these examinations were read into the 
record and occupy pages 4230 to 4237, inclusive. The averages of 
these results are given in Table 59, and the reader is referred to the 
record or to the report of the Illinois State board of health for 1902 
for more detailed information. 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 173 

Table 59 .—Averages of results of analyses of water from Illinois, Mississippi, and 

Missouri rivers, 1901 and 1902. 




Illinois 
River 
above 
Grafton, 
Septem¬ 
ber 23 to 
Decem¬ 
ber 12, 
1901. 

Number of samples. 


38 

Total solids. 

. .parts per million.. 

261 

Solids in suspension. 

.do_ 

32 

Solids in solution... 

.do_ 

229 

Loss on ignition: 



Total. 

.do_ 

40 

In solution. 

.do_ 

36 

Albuminoid ammonia.do_ 

0.413 

Free ammonia. 

.do_ 

0.238 

N itrites. 

.do_ 

0.234 

Nitrates. 

Oxygen absorbed: 

.do_ 

1.042 

Total. 

.do_ 

4.31 

In solution. 

.do_ 

3.21 

Organic nitrogen... 

.do_ 

0.81 

Chlorine. 

.do_ 

16.4 

Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Fermentation: 

/ 100 to 

f 25,800 

In 0.1 c. c. 

_per cent of gas.. 

31.4 

In 1 c. c. 

.do_ 

48.6 

Coagulation of milk at 38° C. 

Slow. 

Production of indol. 

.per cent of samples. 

2.9 


Missis¬ 
sippi 
River 
above 
Grafton, 
Septem¬ 
ber 23 to 
Decem¬ 
ber 12, 
1901. 

Missouri 

River 

at 

mouth, 
Septem¬ 
ber 17 to 
Decem¬ 
ber 12, 
1901. 

Illinois 
River 
above 
Grafton, 
Febru¬ 
ary 21 to 
March 
18, 1902. 

Missis¬ 
sippi 
River 
above 
Grafton, 
Febru¬ 
ary 24 to 
March 
17, 1902. 

Missouri 

River 

at 

mouth, 
March 10 
to 21, 
1902. 

37 

43 

13 

12 

8 

183 

. 1,294 

445.7 

280.8 

1,594.5 

38 

948 

216.0 

93.0 

1,290.2 

45 

346 

229.7 

187.8 

304.3 

36 

82 

68.4 

48.9 

186.0 

33 

29 

45.8 

49.3 

54.0 

0.39 

0.60 

0.452 

0.283 

0.849 

0.07 

0.10 

1.344 

0.244 

0.295 

0.004 

0.0006 

0.003 

0.003 

0.011 

0.08 

0.13 

0.398 

0. 473 

0.675 

7.84 

10.28 

8.96 

7.09 

17.15 

6.53 

3.17 

4.88 

4.84 

4.96 

0. 74 

1.61 

1.46 

1.24 

3.27 

1.88 

14.9 

12.49 

2.45 

14.46 

150 to 

300 to 

40 to 

60 to 

160 to 

5,200 

21,200 

14,880 

12,400 

14,160 

36.1 

82.5 

61.6 

25.0 

87.5 

51.4 

88.4 

40.0 

9.0 


Slow. 

Moderate 

Moderate 

Slow. 

16.75 hrs. 

3.1 

56.8 

15 

25.0 

75 


The witness made the following interpretation of the data contained 
in Table 59: The organic condition of Illinois River above Grafton is 
much better than that of the Missouri above its mouth. This is 
shown, according to the witness, first, by the factor of oxygen con¬ 
sumed, which for Illinois River is for the unfiltered water 4.31 parts 
per million and for the filtered water 3.21 parts, whereas the Missouri 
• shows 10.28 and 3.17 parts, respectively; second, by the factor of 
albuminoid ammonia, as measuring the substances of comparatively 
complex composition yet undecomposed—in Illinois River 0.413 part 
per million, as against 0.6 part in Missouri River; third, by the factor 
of organic nitrogen, as determined by the Kjedahl process, which is 
0.81 part per million in Illinois River and 1.61 parts in the Missouri. 
The chemical reactions due to living organic matter in Illinois and 
Missouri rivers being considered, it is evident, according to the wit¬ 
ness, that the condition of Illinois River was greatly superior to that 
of Missouri River throughout the whole period, and especially is this • 
shown by the biological work recorded in the table. The production 
of indol, for example, was very common in samples taken from Mis¬ 
souri River and rare in Illinois River samples. It is also shown by the 
greater abundance in the Missouri samples of those organisms which 
have the power of breaking down carbohydrates with the production 
of acid. The tests further show, according to the witness, that Mis¬ 
souri River is also contaminated to a far greater degree than Mississippi 
River above the mouth of the Illinois. (4239-4241.) 





































174 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness was then questioned concerning investigations made 
by him on the character of the water of Kaw and Missouri rivers in 
the vicinity of Kansas City. He stated that in May, 1903, samples 
were taken under his direction from Kaw River at a point 1^ miles 
above its confluence with the Missouri and from Missouri River (a) 
above its confluence with the Kaw, (b) below the confluence with the 
Kaw and above Kansas City, and (c) below Kansas City. No deter¬ 
minations were made on these samples except that of chlorine. The 
results, together with the flow of Kaw and Missouri rivers, are 
recorded in Table 60. (4241-4246.) 


Table 60 . — Volume of flow and determinations of chlorine in the water of Kaw and 
Missouri rivers at designated points, May 22-28, 1903. 

[Flow in cubic feet per second; chlorine in parts per million.] 



May 22. 

May 23. 

May 24. 


Flow. 

Chlorine. 

Flow. 

Chlorine. 

Flow. 

Chlorine. 

Kaw River. 





51,000 


Missouri River above Kaw River 


10.22 


11.64 



Missouri River above Kansas City... 
Missouri River below Kansas City... 

125,000 

10.95 

145,000 

11.62 

184,000 



16.59 


11.72 







* 0 



May 25. 

May 26. 

May 27. 

May 28. 

Flow. 

Chlo¬ 

rine. 

Flow. 

Chlo¬ 

rine. 

Flow. 

Chlo¬ 

rine. 

Flow. 

Chlo¬ 

rine 

Kaw River. 

49,600 


39,100 

10.29 

63,500 

9.89 

72,200 

8.95 

Missouri River above Kaw River.... 

9.81 

10.31 

11.96 

Missouri River above Kansas City... 
Missouri River below Kansas City. -. 

198,000 

226,000 


242,000 


310,000 














It appears from Table 60 that the samples from Kaw River were 
taken subsequent to those from the Missouri, and therefore the 
amounts of chlorine as stated in the table are not absolutely com- 
parable for the two streams. The dates May 26, 27, and 28, given 
in the record, are probably incorrect, owing to typographical error, 
and the proper dates are the 22d, 23d. and 25th, as in the case of the 
Missouri River samples. As this review is taken from the official 
record, however, this probable error can not be corrected, but it is 
here indicated. 

Counsel for the defense stated that the testimony here given was 
partly for the purpose of rebutting that of Doctor Teichmann, who 
stated that the great part of the chlorine in Missouri River was 
derived from the Kaw. In response to questions, therefore, the 
witness interpreted the results as follows: The averages drawn from 
the table show a considerably larger figure for chlorine below Kansas 
City than in the Kaw or the Missouri above Kansas City. The excess 
of chlorine below Kansas City is more than can be accounted for by 
any addition from the Kaw, showing that a certain proportion must 
come from the stock yards and sewers of Kansas City. The volume 































































TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


175 

of Missouri River was considerably greater than that of the Kaw 
throughout the period under discussion and the amount of chlorine 
in the Kaw, the volume of the river being considered, could not have 
increased the chlorine in the Missouri beyond the amount given for 
the latter river above Kansas City. Therefore, in the opinion of the 
witness, the chlorine at the mouth of Missouri River can be attributed 
only in part to the chlorine from Kaw River, the table showing that 
the additions from Kansas City are an important factor. (4241- 
4249.) 

M ith reference to the effect of sewage from the Chicago drainage 
canal on the water supply of St. Louis, the witness stated that from 
all the examinations he had made of Illinois River and its tributaries, 
it w^as his opinion that no part of the original organic matter leaving 
Chicago through the drainage canal and finding its way into Illinois 
River could reach the mouth of the Illinois, much less the intake 
tower of the St. Louis waterworks; therefore it was his belief that 
the sanitary condition of the water supply of St. Louis was not and 
could not be injured by any pollution from Chicago. (4250.) 

The witness then stated that the volume of water soinv down 
Illinois River is greater than it was before the opening of the drain¬ 
age canal, and that inasmuch as the amount of sewage per given 
volume is necessarily less and at the same time this dilution pro¬ 
duces no enforced decrease in the bacterial activity throughout the 
channel, there can be no decrease in the purification from these 
causes. Floods carry into the river an immense amount of organic 
matter and numerous living organisms from all the tributaries. This 
increases the organic contamination, irrespective of any original con¬ 
tamination which may have been present. A further effect of floods, 
inasmuch as the banks of Illinois River are very low^, is to spread an 
enormous volume of water over an area of many hundreds of thou¬ 
sands of acres, providing for the sedimentation and oxidation to a 
marked degree of matters carried by the water at these periods. 
The conditions in Illinois River, because of the peculiar character of 
the banks, are unique in this respect. The overflow disposes in this 
manner of a vast amount of organic matter which in a stream with 
high banks would have to be carried forward. Inasmuch as by far 
the largest part of the water at flood times leaves the natural channel 
of the river and is distributed over a vast area of land, the original 
sew^age or remnants of sewage carried by this water must be in like 
manner distributed, and thus made accessible to the purifying proc¬ 
esses of sedimentation or oxidation. The witness then stated that 
the lakes which were backed up by the various dams across Illinois 
River offer large basins for oxidation and hold up the w^ater to some 
extent for that purpose. He further stated that it w^as his belief 
that Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks is not a potable stream and 


176 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


had not been at any near period suitable for household use. (4250- 
4253.) 

In response to questions, Professor Long stated that the addition 
of a large volume of Lake Michigan water and canal water flowing 
down the Illinois, which causes an increase in dilution, had produced 
the resultant effect that the water at the mouth of Illinois River 
after the opening of the canal was in far better sanitary condition 
than previous thereto. (4254.) 

The following hypothetical question and the reply thereto appear 
in the record (pp. 4256-4260): 

Q. Professor, assume that 107 barrels of 40 gallons each of culture of Bacillus pro¬ 
digiosus, consisting of 1,000,000,000 bacilli per cubic centimeter as contained in said 
barrel, were deposited into the Chicago drainage canal at the town of Lemont on the 
afternoon and evening of the 6th day of November, 1901, during a period of from four 
to eight hours; assume further that immediately after said barrels were emptied into 
the drainage canal at the point aforesaid the laboratories established at Lockport, 
Joliet, Peoria, and Grafton, on the Illinois River, at the intake tower of the St. Louis 
waterworks at the Chain of Rocks, were notified, and that samples were collected at 
each of these places every hour of the day and night for the purpose of bacteriological 
analyses for the ascertainment of these Bacillus prodigiosus; and assume that at Lock- 
port these hourly samples taken day and night were taken from November 7 to Novem¬ 
ber 25, a period of eighteen days, the total number of samples taken being 432, or there¬ 
abouts; assume that at Joliet these hourly samples taken day and night were taken 
from November the 7tli to November the 25th, a period of eighteen days, the total 
number of samples taken being about 432; and assume that at Peoria these hourly 
samples taken day and night from November the 8th to November 30, a period of 
twenty-two days, amounting to a total of 528, and assume that at Grafton these hourly 
samples were taken day and night from November 12 to December 15, a period of 
thirty-three days, the total number amounting to 732, of which 384 were analyzed 
by Dr. Ravold; and assume that the total number of samples taken hourly day and 
night was 720, and assume that at the laboratory tap these hourly samples taken day 
and night from November 20 until March 1, 1902, a period of one hundred days, 
amounting to a total of 2,400. and assume that the total number of samples analyzed at 
the different points for the period above mentioned was 5.304; and assume further 
that on December 4 at 8.45 a. m. one bacterium Bacillus prodigiosus was found at the 
intake tower at the Chain of Rocks; assume that on December the 5th at 9 a. m. one 
bacterium Bacillus prodigiosus was found at the intake tower at the Chain of Rocks; 
assume that on December the 8th at midnight one bacterium Bacillus prodigiosus was 
found at the intake tower at the Chain of Rocks; assume that on December 6 at 8 a. m. 
at Grafton one Bacillus prodigiosus was found; assume that on December 7 at mid¬ 
night at Grafton one Bacillus prodigiosus was found; and assume further that these five 
organisms were all of the organisms of prodigiosus that were found in the examinations 
ma\le from Lockport to the intake tower at the Chain of Rocks and the laboratory tap 
in the city of St. Louis, which were made during the progress of this investigation as 
hereinbefore set forth; that at no time was there more than one bacterium found in 
each of these places. Assuming all of the facts as hereinbefore stated to be true, what 
is your opinion as to the value of this experiment as indicating the probable longevity 
of the typhoid bacillus as measured by the longevity of the Bacillus prodigiosus and 
the probability that a typhoid bacillus entering the drainage canal from the sewers of 
Chicago would ultimately find its way through the Desplarties and Illinois rivers to the 
town of Grafton? 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


177 


A. Considering the longevity of the typhoid bacillus as measured by the longevity 
of the Bacillus prodigiosus , which consideration in no way involves a knowledge of 
bacteriology, but simply a knowledge of arithmetic as set forth in this question, I 
would say that the suppositions advanced in this question indicate that the longevity 
of the Bacillus prodigiosus, and of the typhoid bacillus as compared with it, is so 
extremely slight as to make the probability of a germ of this character being able to 
survive a passage from the drainage canal to Grafton so remote as to be entirely unworthy 
of consideration. This conclusion depends on certain calculations which I have 
made and which I will present. As the various data are given in terms of the metric 
system, it is necessary to make certain reductions in order to be able to reach a proper 
conclusion. First, it is necessary to determine the concentration of the germs in the 
canal water at the time when they were dumped from the barrels as supposed in the 
question. At this period the flow in the canal was almost exactly 235,000 cubic feet 
per minute, which I have reduced to liters by use of the factor 28.3 liters per cubic 
foot, which is almost the exact factor, giving 6,650,000 liters, very nearly, per minute. 
Reducing this number of minutes to hours, I find that for four hours, or two hundred 
and forty minutes, assumed to be consumed in this addition of the bacteria to the water 
a volume of water flowed equivalent to 1,596,000,000 liters, or approximately 
1,600,000,000 liters. As the calculations are finally based on the cubic centimeter 
rather than the liter, I have reduced this volume to cubic centimeters by multiplying 
by 1,000, giving as the volume of this water in cubic centimeters, into which the sub¬ 
stance from the barrels was dumped, 1,600,000,000,000, or, expressed most accurately 
in the method now common among mathematicians, 1.6 x 10 12 . This is the flow of the 
canal in cubic centimeters in four hours. I will say for the purposes of comparison it 
makes no difference whether we assume four hours or eight hours, as the same factor 
enters later into the calculation at the mouth of the river. We have next to consider 
from the assumptions of the question the number of bacteria mixed with this volume. 
One hundred and seven barrels of 40 gallons each gives the amount of 4,280 gallons, 
which when reduced to liters give us something over 16,000 liters—16,017 and more 
liters—but in round numbers I will use 16,000 liters, or 16,000,000 cubic centimeters. 
The number of bacteria per cubic centimeter, according to the assumption of the ques¬ 
tion, was 1,000,000,000. The total number of bacteria then discharged would be the 
product of 1,000,000,000 per cubic centimeter by the number of cubic centimeters, 
or 16,000,000 multiplied by 1,000,000,000, which multiplied out gives us the number 
16,000,000,000,000,000, or, more accurately or definitely expressed, 1.6 16 . We have 
therefore as the number of bacteria, following the assumption of the question, which 
must have been thrown into the canal, 1.6 16 , as given. As the number of cubic centi¬ 
meters into which this number was thrown was given as 1.6 12 , the quotient of one of 
these by the other gives the concentration of 10 at the fourth power, or 10,000 bacteria 
to the cubic centimeter, on the assumption that the mixing or dumping took place 
through a period of four hours. We have therefore as concentration 10,000 to the 
cubic centimeter. Now, supposing this wedge of water to pass down the liver abso¬ 
lutely unchanged, and supposing further that no increase or decrease in this number 
of bacteria should follow by death or by any other means, it is simply a statement of 
fact to say that we should find 10,000 per cubic centimeter at some corresponding time, 
in some part of the river below; but admitting the fact that a change by dilution fol¬ 
lows by taking up the water of the tributaries and through the uneven flow of the 
water, the particles moving more rapidly in the center than along the sides of the 
stream, a certain dilution must be calculated—must be admitted as taking place in 
this volume. From the fact that these samples were all found within a four-day 
period, or rather these bacteria were all found in samples collected in a period of four 
days, as presented in the question, I have calculated this original volume of water as 
diluted with the volume of water which flows at the mouth of the river in a period of 


irr 194—07 


12 


178 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


four days. On that assumption a number of at least 200 should be found per cubic 
centimeter for each cubic centimeter examined, on the assumption that no death or 
loss of these bacteria takes place anywhere in the course. As a matter of fact, not 200 
were found in 1 cubic centimeter, but a very large number of examinations had to be 
made to find a cubic centimeter in which there was one contained. It is evident that 
an enormous destruction of these organisms must take place between the point at 
which the bacteria were thrown in and the mouth of the river, where the examinations 
were made. The actual finding is not over one ten-thousandth of what should be 
expected from 107 barrels on the assumption that these organisms did not die out; that 
is, we find less than one ten-thousandth of the expected amount. If we consider a 
number less than 107 barrels as added—one barrel, for example—the probability of 
any organism of this character reaching the mouth of the Illinois River is less than one 
chance in 1,000,000. If we consider one barrel or one one-hundredth of a barrel as 
added, the chance of one of these organisms reaching the mouth of the river and being 
found in a cubic centimeter becomes correspondingly reduced. Therefore, without 
involving any question of bacteriology, but simply a question of calculation, it is evi¬ 
dent that the probabilities of any number of bacteria in a given small volume reaching 
the mouth of the Illinois River is extremely remote and not one which can be practi¬ 
cally or seriously considered. (4256-4260.) 

Continuing, the witness stated that the longevity of the typhoid 
bacillus being measured by that of the Bacillus prodigiosus , and the 
fact being taken into account that in the large number of examina¬ 
tions made at Lockport, Joliet, and Peoria no B. prodigiosus were 
found, and further that only the small number mentioned were 
obtained at the mouth of the river and from the intake tower at 
Chain of Rocks and in the water supply of St. Louis—none at all 
before December 4 and none after December 8—it is practically 
improbable that a typhoid bacillus with longevity and virility as 
measured by that of the B. prodigiosus would ever survive the pas¬ 
sage down the drainage canal and Illinois River and enter the water 
supply of St. Louis. (4261.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

In reply to an inquiry concerning which tests, chemical or bacte¬ 
riological, the witness considered most important, he stated that it 
w^as impossible to determine; both are of equal importance in some 
cases, while in others one will take precedence over the other. lie 
stated further that his direct testimony on the sanitary condition of 
the water of Illinois River was not altogether based on chemical and 
bacteriological tests, but also on his general opinion of the sanitary 
condition of river water. (4264-4266.) 

The witness made the following general statement of his opinion 
concerning pollution and the interpretations of analytical results: 
The most objectionable pollution in a river consists of the products 
of human excretion; as to which particular product the witness could 
not give an opinion as biologist or bacteriologist, but he concurred in 
general with the accepted opinion. With reference to the specific 
character of pollution the witness stated that the origin of the vege- 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN H. LONG. 


179 


table extracts can be pretty safely inferred, because they contain 
preeminently more bodies of the carbohydrates and their derivatives 
than the extracts of animal origin. Vegetable extracts give marked 
reactions with the permanganate solution, but not very marked reac¬ 
tions with the reagents measuring nitrogenous matter. This pecul¬ 
iarity is of value in distinguishing between the vegetable and animal 
extracts when the organic matter is fresh, but it does not appear to 
the same extent in the examination of older substances. It is not 
always possible to differentiate sharply between water polluted by 
sewage and that containing organic matter from swamps. In general, 
waters having the latter contamination contain very much less chlo¬ 
rine than those contaminated by sewage. The amount of nitrogen 
in different forms is also significant. The nitrogen as nitrites seems 
to be more characteristic of the breaking down of the products of 
animal than of vegetable origin. These are the most important fac¬ 
tors and the ones usually considered; in addition it is always desir¬ 
able to have as much knowledge as possible concerning the character 
of the watershed, the contribution of sewers in general, whether there 
are great industries and of what kinds, the drainage areas, and the 
rate and character of flow of the river. Inorganic pollution consists 
of the mineral salts, which are the combination of the so-called 
metallic elements, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and 
ammonium, with the elements described as chlorine, sulphuric acid, 
nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and carbonic acid. The substances known 
as organic are usually complex forms—carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, 
and oxygen, with small amounts of sulphur and phosphorus. Organic 
substances are distinguished from the so-called inorganic matter by 
the fact that they undergo general decomposition by heat relatively 
more easily—in other words, the distinction is based on their degree 
of stability. The witness then related the conventional theory con¬ 
cerning the breaking down of organic matter and described in a gen¬ 
eral way the leading features of the Chicago sewerage system and its 
effects on Lake Michigan, Chicago River, and Desplaines River. 

Throughout his cross-examination the witness was careful to state 
that he had confined his work and his interpretations to purely 
chemical and bacterio-chemical lines and had not attempted to deter¬ 
mine the presence of infected matter in the water. He further stated 
that chemical analysis was beneficial to the sanitarian only to the 
extent of showing the amount of organic pollution regardless of its 
character, although under certain conditions it does give a clew to the 
kind of pollution. 

Continuing along the general subject of infection and the relation 
between polluted waters and water-borne diseases, the witness 
expressed certain doubts concerning the conclusions of epidemiolo¬ 
gists and stated that, while in some cases he was inclined to accept 


180 


POLLUTION OF KIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


the opinion of sanitarians without advancing any original theories of 
his own, he had based his opinion concerning the condition of Illinois 
River almost solely on the results of examinations of a chemical and 
bacterio-chemical nature. The matter of possible infection was left 
out of consideration entirely. He did not consider it an important 
factor in his investigation, inasmuch as his purpose was not to deter¬ 
mine whether or not the water was safe for drinking or domestic 
purposes, but to determine the extent and rate of destruction of 
organic pollution in the waters in question and to compare these 
several waters with each other. lie further stated that it was not 
possible to assign any hard and fast limit to the amount of polluting 
substances in a water which would be necessary to make it unpotable 
and refused to be led into a discussion which would make it necessary 
for him to advance an opinion upon such a subject. In forming his 
conclusions concerning the water, he had not attached much impor¬ 
tance to the opinion of epidemiologists, but had preferred to refer to 
the work of others who had made investigations parallel to his own. 
(4266-4298.) 

The following hypothetical question was then asked: 

V 

Assuming that it required twenty days for the water in Illinois River to run from its 
source to its mouth prior to the opening of the canal, and that it requires ten days 
since the opening of the canal, I would like to ask you what effect this time limit has 
upon the determination of whether or not decomposition lias more rapidly taken place 
during the previous period than the subsequent period. 

To this and other questions the witness answered: 

This time limit can have no possible bearing on the question of the determination of 
the fact whether the decomposition has taken place more rapidly or not. The chemical 
analysis is made irrespective of the rapidity with which the water comes down there. 
* * * But supposing this more rapid flow is due to enormously greater dilution, 
instead of being more dangerous for household consumption, inasmuch as we are con¬ 
cerned only with a small volume * * * and not with the gross condition, the final 

condition, instead of being worse, may be better as far as household use is concerned. 

Continuing, the witness stated that dilution does not necessarily 
destroy but it renders less probable the deleterious effect in proportion 
to the extent of dilution. A comparison of the gross pollution of the 
Missouri with that of the Mississippi or of the gross pollution of the 
Illinois with that of the Mississippi is absolutely valueless and absurd. 
It makes no difference what the volume of the body of water is, the 
chemist is concerned only with that amount with which one is liable 
to come directly into contact in his daily usage and as drinking water, 
and the expression parts per million or grains per gallon is the only 
thing which a practical man has to take into consideration. In 
expressing results in parts per million, etc., the dilution factor goes 
in. The witness further insisted that it was impossible to determine 
in all cases the potability of a water from the analytical results, and 


TESTIMONY OF ADOLPH GEHRMANN. 


181 


that no fixed standards could he set with reference to the amount of 
this or that ingredient; in connection with this it was necessary to 
know all the conditions and the source of the water. The witness 
then stated that inasmuch as no one had been able to find the typhoid 
germs in the water, it was his belief that it is highly probable that 
there is no reason for assuming that they are there under any condi¬ 
tions. (4345-4369.) 

ADOLPH GEHRMANN. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Adolph Gehrmann was called as a witness in behalf of the defense. 
In qualifying as an expert he stated that his residence was in Chicago; 
his profession, physician and bacteriologist. He had been connected 
with the Chicago department of health—during 1893 as bacteriologist 
and microscopist for the milk department; and from January, 1894, 
until June, 1902, as director of the laboratory and bacteriologist for 
the department. He received his medical degree from Northwestern 
University in 1890, and had been engaged as a teacher of bacteriology 
and hygiene in the medical department of the University of Illinois. 
At the time of his testimony he was professor of hygiene in the Dear¬ 
born Medical College and professor of bacteriology in the Harvey 
Medical College. In connection with his duties as director of the 
laboratory of the department of health in Chicago, he had conducted 
the bacterial examinations of samples of water received at the labora¬ 
tory. During 1893 he made a weekly examination of the water from 
Lake Michigan from the four cribs, and of one sample from the labora¬ 
tory tap. From the beginning of 1894 to the end of his service for the 
department of health samples were taken daily for bacteriological 
examination. (4744-4747.) 

In the early months of 1899 he was instructed by the commissioner 
of health of Chicago to arrange for the examination of samples from 
the Illinois and Michigan Canal, Desplaines River, Illinois River and 
its tributaries, Mississippi River, and Missouri River, and in con¬ 
junction with Professors Palmer and Burrill of the University of 
Illinois and Professor Jordan of the University of Chicago elaborated 
plans for such examinations. The system of collection was deter¬ 
mined and the work was taken up in the laboratories of these two 
universities and of the health department. It was arranged that 
from each of the sampling points three separate samples must be col¬ 
lected, each sample to be represented by a large and small bottle, mak¬ 
ing six bottles in all, and to be identified according to the usual pro¬ 
cedure. The collectors were instructed in the customary manner. 
(4749-4758.) 


182 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The following were the sampling points: 


Points at which water samples were taken for investigations of Chicago department of 

health , 1894 to 1902. 


Illinois and Michigan Canal: 

Bridgeport, 500 feet west of pumping 
station. 

Lockport. 

North of Joliet. 

South of Joliet. 

Ottawa. 

Desplaines River: 

Lockport. 

Kankakee River: 

Wilmington. 

Illinois River: 

Morris. 

Ottawa. 

La Salle. 

Henry. 

Above Peoria. 

Below Peoria. 

Pekin. 

Havana. 

Beardstown. 

Kampsville. 

Grafton, 2 miles above mouth of Mis¬ 
sissippi River. 

Fox River: 

Ottawa. 

Vermilion River: 

La Salle. 


Little Vermilion River: 

One sample every four weeks. 
Sangamon River: 

Chandlerville. 

Mississippi River: 

Grafton, above mouth of Illinois 
River. 

Alton, 100 feet from east bank. 

Alton, east of midstream. 

Alton, midstream. 

Alton, west of midstream. 

Alton, 100 feet from west bank. 

Chain of Rocks, 400 yards from Illi¬ 
nois shore. 

Chain of Rocks, main channel. 

Chain of Rocks, inlet tower. 

Chain of Rocks, 400 feet from Mis¬ 
souri shore. 

Jefferson Barracks, east bank. 
Jefferson Barracks, east of mid¬ 
stream. 

Jefferson Barracks, midstream. 
Jefferson Barracks, west of mid¬ 
stream. 

Jefferson Barracks, west bank. 
Missouri River: 

Fort Bellefontaine. 

Water tap at St. Louis. 


The witness then gave the names of the samplers, described the 
methods of collecting and identifying the samples, and presented the 
results of his examinations, together with those of D. B. Bisbee, who 
performed the chemical work in the department of health laboratory. 
(4756-4764.) Herewith are reproduced the average results of exami¬ 
nations made in the said laboratory of water taken from stated 
sampling points, July 3 to November 28, 1899. For more detailed 
statements the reader is referred to pages 4770-4807 of the official 
record. 

Counsel for the defense directed the attention of the witness to the 
results contained in the final column of Table 61, namely, the number 
of bacteria per cubic centimeter, and in response to specific questions 
concerning his interpretations the witness testified as follows: 

A comparison of the Illinois and Michigan Canal data at Bridge¬ 
port with the Illinois River data at Averyville (above Peoria) shows 
that there is a difference of 10 to 20 per cent in the number of bacteria 
present, and in some cases a difference of 100 per cent in favor of the 
Averyville samples, which show a much greater bacterial purity than 
those collected at Bridgeport. The number of bacteria is from 10 to 
20 per cent less in the Averyville samples than in the Illinois and 
Michigan Canal samples, taken at Lockport, and in some cases the 
difference amounts to 100 per cent, indicating a greater bacterial 



TESTIMONY OF ADOLPH GEHRMANN. 


183 


purity at Averyville. A comparison of the Illinois River samples at 
Morris with those at Bridgeport and at Averyville shows that the 
number of bacteria is not materially different in the Morris and 
Bridgeport samples, and that those at Averyville contain from 10 to 
20 per cent of the number found at the other two points, indicating 
again a greater degree of bacterial purity. There is no material 
difference between the samples collected at Henry and those at 
Averyville, except in two instances, August 8 and September 30, 
when the bacteria were much higher at Henry. The bacterial counts 
at these two points are from 10 to 20 per cent of the number at Morris, 
showing much greater bacterial purity at these points than at Morris. 
The samples from Kankakee River at Wilmington show only slight 
differences in number of bacteria from the Illinois River samples at 
Averyville. In some instances the count is in favor of Kankakee 
River and in others in favor of Illinois River, the interpretation being 
that there is no material difference in the bacterial purity of these 
two waters. The number of bacteria in the Averyville samples is about 
equal to that in the tributaries of the Illinois, and the zone of self- 
purification extends down to about the location of Averyville. The 
results of examinations of Illinois River water at Wesley (below 
Peoria) and Pekin clearly indicate an increase of pollution in the 
stream between these two points, the bacterial purity at Averyville 
being greater than at either. A comparison of the bacterial counts 
of the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lockport and of Illinois River at 
Wesley and Pekin shows approximately the same amount of bac¬ 
terial purity. The Illinois River water at Grafton contains from 10 
to 20 per cent of the number of bacteria found at Wesley and Pekin, 
and is therefore of far greater bacterial purity than the Wesley and 
Pekin waters. The bacterial counts at Grafton and Averyville are 
about the same. The bacterial purity of Mississippi River at Grafton 
is practically the same as that of Illinois River at Grafton, the 
samples from Illinois River at Grafton and from Missouri River at 
Fort Bellefontaine show no great difference in the bacterial content. 
The series of samples taken along the cross section in Mississippi 
River at Chain of Rocks shows practically the same bacterial counts 
at all points and indicates a general distribution of bacterial purity or 
impurity along the cross section. There is no material difleience in 
the number of bacteria in the samples taken at Chain of Rocks, 400 
feet from the Missouri shore, and in those 400 yards from the Illinois 
shore. The bacterial content of the samples taken along the cross 
section at Jefferson Barracks, below the outlet ol the St. Louis sewers, 
is practically the same as that of the samples taken from the cross 
section at Chain of Rocks. (4808—4819.) 


184 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


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186 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


It should be noted in connection with the above testimony that 
the witness was careful to use the term “ bacterial purity" and 
made no reference to the pathogenic bacteria or disease-producing 
material, his conclusions being based solely on the number of bac¬ 
teria per cubic centimeter in the water, irrespective of their character. 

The witness then testified that he had made examinations to deter¬ 
mine the presence of the colon bacillus and the typhoid bacillus, and 
that the results for the colon bacillus are recorded in the tables of 
which Table 61 is an average. The typhoid bacillus was not found in 
any case. He further stated that he had found the Bacillus prodi- 
giosus during an examination of waters, but that he could not posi¬ 
tively state from such a result that it occurred norn 
found in the vicinity of Chicago. His opinion was that it was an 
accidental entrance upon the culture plate, indicating that this 
bacillus is occasionally present in the vicinity of Chicago and can be 
found by exposing suitable material for its growth. (4820-4821.) 


ially in the waters 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The first portion of the cross-examination was devoted to questions 
of procedure in the bacteriological examination of water, in the 
course of which the witness stated that a whole cubic centimeter of 
water was very rarely used for the colony count, but the examinations 
were made by diluting 1 c. c. with a portion of sterile water and 
calculating the result by multiplying the amount found upon the 
plate by the degree of dilution. The degree of dilution was different 
in samples from various portions of the river, some being diluted 1 to 
100 and others 1 to 1,000, according to the amount of dilution found 
necessary by preliminary experience. (4852-4854.) 

After this testimony the witness was asked whether or not so 
minute a quantity of water examined was sufficient to determine with 
accuracy the bacterial condition of the whole canal or river at that 
point; to which he replied that it was not an exact demonstration in 
the sense that a mathematical demonstration would be, but it gave 
results that were comparable with other results reached similarly and 
at the same time, or in the same line of work. The bacterial count 
simply gave an idea of the numbers of bacteria present, without ref¬ 
erence to the kinds, and was not sufficient to indicate the potability 
or unpotability of the water or the presence or absence of pathogenic 
bacteria. All of this led up to questions concerning statements made 
by the witness in his direct examination with reference to comparative 
bacterial purity,and he explained that the term “bacterial purity” is 
not recognized as indicating the sanitary condition of a water except so 
far as the general activity of decomposition is concerned, which has 
a slight bearing on the question of purity or impurity. (4854-4856.) 

The cross-examiner then led up to a discussion of the quality of the 
pollution of Lake Michigan water at various points and its agency in 


TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR W. PALMER. 187 

producing typhoid fever in Chicago. On the admission of the witness 
that it was his belief that this disease in the city was caused by the 
pollution of the water supply by the city sewage, the cross-examiner 
attempted to demonstrate from the testimony of the witness that 
inasmuch as Chicago sewage could pollute the water of the lake, a 
quiescent body, for distances so far from the shore as had been dem¬ 
onstrated, it was reasonable to believe that the pathogenic organisms 
of typhoid might exist for great distances in a running stream—even 
for a distance as great as that intervening between Chicago and St. 
Louis by way of Illinois and Mississippi rivers. The witness replied 
in general that Lake Michigan is by no means a quiescent body of 
water, being subject to currents due to winds and other natural phe¬ 
nomena, and that, in addition to this, Lake Michigan is a large body 
of comparatively pure water, which, according to his experience, is 
much more favorable for the preservation of the life of typhoid organ¬ 
isms than the more highly polluted water of the drainage canal and 
upper Illinois River. (4857-4865.) 

ARTHUR W. PALMER. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Arthur W. Palmer, called as a witness in behalf of the defendants, 
stated that he had been for fifteen years professor of chemistry in the 
University of Illinois. He was educated in the public schools of Illi¬ 
nois and at Illinois, Harvard, Berlin, and Gottingen universities, where 
he had specialized in chemistry. He had paid particular attention to 
water analysis, having been engaged in that work as a student, teacher, 
and investigator for a period of twenty-two years. (4903-4904.) 

The witness then related the facts concerning the agreement between 
the department of health of Chicago, the University of Chicago, and 
the University of Illinois with reference to the examination of sam¬ 
ples of water from the Illinois River system. These facts are as 
related in the testimony of Prof. E. O. Jordan. (4904-4905.) 

The witness then stated the location of the various sampling points 
included in the accompanying tables and described the surroundings 
and pertinent facts in connection therewith. (4905-4922.) 

The method of handling samples, the determinations made, and 
their significance were then described by the witness. (4922-4938.) 

Pages 4939 to 4976 of the record are occupied by tabular statements 
of examinations made at selected sampling points along the stream 
during the period from April 28 to December 27, 1899. The results 
of examination of samples collected between January 11 and October 
8, 1900, appear on pages 4977 to 5026. The witness then described 
the significance of the various entries in these tables. (5027—5039.) 

He then presented tabular statements of the average results of the 
series of determinations. These results are reproduced in Table 62. 
(5040, 5042.) 


Table. 62.— Average results of analyses of water from Illinois and Mississippi river systems, at selected points, 1899 and 1900. 

[Parts per million.] 


188 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 




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190 


POLLUTION 


OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE.- 






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TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR W. PALMER. 


191 


I he witness then presented tables containing the averages of deter¬ 
minations made during the periods from June to September , inclusive, 
for 1899 and 1900, respectively, and following these read into the rec¬ 
ord two other tables showing, first, the average of determinations 
made during the four months, June to .September, inclusive, 1899 and 
1900, of samples taken from Illinois River at Grafton, Mississippi 
River at Grafton, and Missouri River at Fort Beliefontaine, together 
with the highest and lowest determinations during these periods at 
each of the points mentioned, also the averages for the same four- 
month periods for samples from a few other selected points; second, 
a similar statement based on all the determinations during the two 
years. (5047-5054.) 

Evidence was then presented concerning the determination of dis¬ 
solved oxygen in an extensive series of samples taken under special 
conditions from specified points in the canal and rivers under discus¬ 
sion. The determinations were made according to the Winkler and 
the Levy methods, and the results appear in a table occupying pages 
5062-5068 of the record. The period covered by these examinations 
extended from the latter part of April, 1899, to the middle of October, 
1900. With reference to the remark, “Test of keeping qualities/’ 
placed at certain points in the table, the witness explained that 
although most of the determinations were made on the spot at the 
time of collection it was desired to procure some information as to the 
changes taking place in the organic matter of the water during trans¬ 
portation from the sampling point to the laboratory. Therefore 
duplicate samples were taken, one being treated immediately and the 
other being reserved for a period varying from twelve hours to two 
days, after which the determination was made. Inasmuch as samples 
of waters containing organic matter suffer a loss of dissolved oxygen 
when they are allowed to stand out of their natural environment, a 
great diminution is regarded as an indication of inferiority in the 
water as compared with one in which the diminution is slight. In the 
samples so noted in the table the stability of the organic matter, or, in 
other words, the “keeping qualities” of the water, are indicated. 
(5055-5061.) 

With reference to the results of the dissolved-oxygen determina¬ 
tions, the witness made the following statements: Illinois River water 
contains at all times a considerable percentage of the oxygen required 
for saturation, and at times is supersaturated. The supersaturation 
is due to the liberation of oxygen by chlorophyl-bearing organisms in 
the water. Samples shipped to the laboratory before being treated 
nearly always contained an amount of oxygen less than the amount of 
saturation, though those treated with mercuric chloride showed no 
diminution. It is certain that the actual content of dissolved oxygen 


192 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


* 


expressed in the results is in many cases considerably less than the 
actual amount. 

The witness then discussed these results in narrative form, calling 
attention to the various interpreting features. As these features are 
clearly apparent to the careful reader of the table they will not be 
repeated here. (5070-5079.) 

Three diagrams were then presented and discussed, showing graph¬ 
ically the changes taking place in each of the constituents determined 
in samples of water taken from the established points hereinbefore 
designated during the two periods of investigations, 1899 and 1900. 
These diagrams merely show in another form the relations presented 
in Table 62 and therefore are not reproduced here. (5080-5097.) 

The witness then introduced a series of plates,numbered 4 to 15, 
inclusive, showing graphically the average proportions of some of the 
more significant constituents of the waters of Illinois, Mississippi, and 
Missouri rivers, so that the conditions during similar periods in 1899 
and 1900 might readily be compared. These plates are not here repro¬ 
duced, because the facts that they are alleged to show may readily 
be taken from Table 62. (5097-5147.) 

A series of tables containing the results of examinations made by 
the witness as director of the State water survey of Illinois was then 
presented. These analyses include weekly samples taken from the 
following points: 

Lake Michigan at Chicago, 1897-1900. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at Lockport, 1897-1901. 

Chicago drainage canal at Lockport, 1900-1901. 

Desplaines River at Lockport, 1897-1901. 

Desplaines River at Joliet (east and west sides), 1901. 

Illinois River at Morris, 1897-1900. 

Illinois River at Ottawa, 1899-1901. 

Illinois River at La Salle, 1897-1900. 

Illinois River at Averyville, 1897-1901. 

Illinois River at Havana, 1897-1900. 

Illinois River at Kampsville, 1897-1902. 

Illinois River at Grafton, 1899-1902. 

Mississippi River at Grafton, 1899-1901. 

Mississippi River at Alton, 1897-1900. 

Mississippi River at Quincy, 1897-1903. 

Kankakee River at Wilmington, 1897-1900. 

Fox River at Ottawa, 1898-1901. 

Spoon River at Havana, 1897-1899. 

I hese tables, with the subsequent explanations and reiterations for 
purposes of evidence, occupy pages 5166-5360 of the record. Aver¬ 
ages of the results appear in Table 63. 


TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR W. PALMER. 


193 


The witness discussed the above results in part as follows: Up to 
the opening of the Chicago drainage canal the water in the old Illi¬ 
nois and Michigan Canal varied in character but little from year to 
year, but a great change followed the opening of the drainage canal. 
The relative proportion of organic matter in the old canal was greatly 
reduced, although the free ammonia became greater owing to the 
more speedy oxidation of the organic matter facilitated by the 
dilution. The proportions of ingredients in the water of the drainage 
canal show notable variations, due to various apparent causes, but 
the data show that the sewage discharged from the canal is far more 
dilute than that formerly discharged through the old Illinois and 
Michigan Canal. (5371-5372.) 

After noting the changes in the character of the water, as shown 
by the determinations in Table 63, from the canals at Lockport 
down to Averyville, the witness stated that it was “highly probable” 
that the organic substances introduced at Chicago had been com¬ 
pletely destroyed by the time the water reached Avery ville, and that 
the organic matter remaining was of vegetable rather than of animal 
origin. The averages of the Averyville determinations show that 
the water at this point contains considerably less organic matter 
than is present in the water of the comparatively unpoluted tribu¬ 
tary streams. (5388-5389.) 

Calling attention to the averages of the Havana samples, the 
witness stated that enormous discharges from the distilleries and 
cow pens at Peoria and Pekin had created in the stretch of 45 miles 
of river lying between these two points and Havana what was prac¬ 
tically an immense septic tank. This stretch of the river, especially 
the upper part, had been very offensive. Nevertheless, so active 
had been the natural processes of purification that at Havana the 
water was in practically as good condition as at Averyville, above 
the point of entrance of this pollution. The records after the opening 
of the drainage canal show, according to the witness, a greatly 
reduced proportion of organic constituents. (5392—5393.) 

The testimony of the witness, found on pages 5394^-5451 of the 
record, was devoted to a review of the data given in Table Go. The 
variations shown were narrated and the figures presented in mani¬ 
fold ways and groups, both tabular and diagrammatic. As nothing 
was added by way of evidence or deduction, beyond that which is 
readily apparent in Table 63, no digest of this portion of the testi¬ 
mony will be made. 
irk 194—07-13 



Table 63 .—Averages of results of analyses of samples of water from designated streams at specified points and dates. (5362-5393 ). 

[Parts per million.] 


194 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS 


BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 











































































































































































































TESTIMONY 


OF ARTHUR 


W. PALMER. 


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January to December, 1897. 

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April to December, 1898. 

April to December, 1899. 

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1900 . 

1901 . 

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1896 . 

1897 . 

1898 . 

1899 . 

Four years average.. 

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1900. 

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1897 . 

1898 . 

1899 .. 

Three years average. 

1900 . 

1901 . 

1902 .‘. 

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196 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness then presented a diagram showing the relative pro¬ 
portions of upper Mississippi River water and Illinois River water 
at five points in a cross section of Mississippi River, 16 miles below 
the mouth of Illinois River and 7 miles above the mouth of Missouri 
River, calculated from the average chlorine content at those points 
as determined from weekly analyses throughout 1899 and 1900. 
From this diagram it appears that in 1899 the average chlorine in 
Mississippi River above Grafton was 2.9 parts per million and in 
the Illinois above Grafton 15.2 parts. At the cross section above 
mentioned the water at the Missouri shore contained 3.2 parts, 
equivalent to 2.4 per cent of Illinois River water. At one-fourth 
the distance from the Missouri shore the water contained 3.5 parts 
of chlorine, equivalent to 4.8 per cent of Illinois River water. In 
midstream there were 4.3 parts of chlorine, equivalent to 11.3 per 
cent of Illinois River water. At three-fourths the distance from the 
Missouri shore, or one-fourth the distance from the Illinois shore, 
there were 5.8 parts of chlorine, equivalent to 23.5 per cent of Illinois 
River water, while at the Illinois shore there were 7.5 parts of chlorine, 
equivalent to 38 per cent Illinois River water. The record for 1900 
was given as follows: 


Average chlorine in Mississippi River water above Grafton, 3.1 
parts per million; in Illinois River water above Grafton, 13.1 parts. 
Proportions and percentages at the five points in the cross section, 
taken in the same order as for 1899, 3.5 parts, equivalent to 4 per 
cent Illinois water; 4.1 parts, or 10 per cent; 4.4 parts, or 13 per 
cent; 7.1 parts, or 40 per cent; 7.6 parts, or 46 per cent. 

From these figures the witness expressed the opinion that the waters 
of Mississippi and Illinois rivers were by no means commingled by 
the time they reached the mouth of Missouri River. (5452-5454.) 

The witness then expressed the opinion that there is no satisfac¬ 
tory basis on which a calculation of the relative proportions of 
water from Mississippi, Illinois, and Missouri rivers entering the 
intake at Chain of Rocks could he made, but for all such calculations 
the chlorine determination would be the most satisfactory, because 
chlorine is not, like the various forms of nitrogen, a variable con¬ 
stituent. It would not be practicable to determine these propor¬ 
tions from free ammonia or from nitrites because the amounts of 


these constituents change by reason of decomposition processes 
going on within the water. The comparative proportions of total 
solids might he used for this purpose if the amounts in the three waters 
differed sufficiently, but even then errors would arise because total 
solids include both dissolved and suspended matter. Variations 
in the amount of solids in suspension, caused by variations in velocitv 
of flow or in character of material underlying the stream bed and 
constituting the banks, would take place without any corresponding 
changes in the amount of water contributed by the stream. Esti¬ 
mates of proportional contribution based on suspended matter 
would be unsatisfactory for the same reason. (5452-5457.) 


TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR W. PALMER. 197 

Further testimony of the witness, occupying pages 5459-5511, in¬ 
clusive, comprised the narration of chemical facts given in Table 63, 
together v ith amplifications of the same, accompanied by diagrams. 
Included in this part of the testimony were diagrammatic represen¬ 
tations of the stages of water in Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri 
rivers, scaled in with coincident analytical records, the purpose of 
which was to show that increase in the determinations, such as total 
organic nitrogen, free and albuminoid ammonia, etc., were the result 
of or were attended by increased flow in the rivers, and were not 
caused by increase in polluting material. The witness believed that 
the fact that these changes took place in the water of Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers as consistently as in that of the Illinois was important 
evidence that the apparently unfavorable changes in the composition 
of the Illinois water were not the result of pollution from the Chi¬ 
cago drainage canal. In other words, he was of the opinion that 
such pollution had not changed the character of the water of Mis¬ 
sissippi River at Chain of Rocks. (5511-5512.) 

The witness offered in evidence the results of analyses of special 
cross-section samples taken as follows: 

Illinois River at Averyville, July 21, 1899, and November 26, 1901. 

Illinois River at Wesley, July 22, 1899. 

Illinois River at foot of Terminal Bridge [Pekin], November 26, 1901. 

Illinois River below Pekin, November 26, 1901. 

Illinois River at Grafton, January 5, and July 28, 1899. 

Mississippi River at Grafton, January 5 and 18, February 15, May 24, and 
July 28, 1899. 

Mississippi River at Hartford, July 7 and August 17, 1900. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, April 14 and December 7, 1899. 

Mississippi River at Alton, December 6, 1899. 

He then made the following statements: At Averyville the waters 
are substantially uniform in quality throughout the entire section. 
At Wesley the waters are not uniform, the greatest amount of pol¬ 
lution being near the west shore. The same is true at the Terminal 
Bridge. Substantially uniform conditions prevail throughout the 
cross sections in Illinois River at Grafton. The waters of Illinois 
and Mississippi rivers are not perfectly commingled at Hartford, that 
of the Illinois persisting mainly along the Illinois shore. The cross- 
section samples at Mitchell, 2 miles below the mouth of Missouri River, 
show that the three bodies of water remain distinct. (5515-5525.) 

Pages 5532-5558 of the record contain the analytical results of 
further examinations made during October, November, and Decem¬ 
ber, 1901, of samples taken from the following points: 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks (Illinois shore, midstream, intake tower, 
and Missouri shore). 


198 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Concerning the figures the witness stated that the waters of the 
three rivers—Mississippi, Illinois, and Missouri—show great differ¬ 
ences, and that water from the Illinois is deflected toward the east¬ 
ern shore of the Mississippi and only small proportions of it come 
into immediate contact with water from the Missouri. In total 
oxygen required the waters from the three rivers rank from highest 
to lowest in the following order: Missouri River, Mississippi River, 
Illinois River. In oxygen required by matter in solution they rank 
from highest to lowest in the following order: Mississippi River, Illinois 
River, Missouri Riverr. Comparison of the results from the three 
rivers in 1901 with results in 1899 showed improvement in the Mis¬ 
sissippi and Illinois River waters and deterioration in the Missouri 
River water. (5559-5563.) 

With reference to the amount of organic matter in the water of 
Illinois River before and after the opening of the drainage canal, the 
witness stated that the results of determinations of organic nitrogen 
by the Kjeldahl process on samples taken from Illinois River at 
Kampsville during 1897 to 1902, inclusive, showed an average of 
1.087 parts per million before the opening of the canal and 0.8966 
part per million afterwards. This represents a decrease of 17.48 per 
cent. ' Similar data for dissolved organic nitrogen showed a decrease 
of 17.92 per cent for the three years after the opening of the canal. 
During the same period there was 25 per cent decrease in the albu¬ 
minoid ammonia, 6 per cent increase in free ammonia, 40 per cent 
decrease in nitrites, and 15.67 per cent increase in nitrates. (5567- 
5573.) 

The witness then entered into a long and verv much involved 
discussion of the amounts of organic nitrogen discharged into Des- 
plaines River during the years immediately before and subsequent 
to the opening of' the canal, and the persistence of the same down¬ 
stream. Numerous tables were given, showing amounts in tons, 
etc., all of which made an interesting and clever discussion of the 
nitrogen question, but can hardly be said to be particularly relevant to 
the case at hand. The matter occupies pages 5575—5627 of the record. 

In closing his direct testimony the witness drew the following 
conclusions: 

First. The opening of the Chicago drainage canal improved the 
condition of the water in Illinois River all along its course. 

Second. The waters of the Illinois above its mouth, of the Missis¬ 
sippi above the mouth of the Illinois, and of the Missouri above its 
confluence with the Mississippi are unfit for drinking purposes in the 
raw state. 


TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR W. PALMER. 


199 


hurl. The discharge of sewage from the Chicago drainage canal 
does not injuriously affect the water of the Mississippi along the east¬ 
ern border of the State of Missouri, but, on the contrary, the influx of 
pure water from Lake Michigan into Illinois River has caused a more 
complete destruction of the organic matter from Chicago sewage than 
under former conditions, when said sewage was discharged through 
the Illinois and Michigan Canal. (5640-5643.) 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 


With reference to the accuracy and significance of his analytical 
work on the streams of Illinois, the witness presented the following 
opinions: 

The analyses placed in the record throw much light on the sanitary 
condition of the water, but do not directly determine the absence or 
presence of disease organisms. They do, however, show the presence 
or absence of sewage, and therefore indicate the possible presence or 
absence of substances which as a class are objectionable in drinking 
waters for the reason that they themselves or the substances which 
accompany them are deleterious to health when introduced into the 
system through drink. “The basis for the detection of the presence 
and the kind and the characteristics of the disease-producing organisms 
and substances which in sewage and waters at times accompany the 
chemical constituents found in these fluids rests mainly upon the 
various chemical reactions and decompositions which said organisms 
and substances produce and the chemical substances which result 
from their action.’ 7 Without a recognition of the significance of the 
chemical changes which disease-producing organisms bring about, 
there would be no means of determining their presence in running 
water, but this branch of the science is called bacteriology. (5644- 
5647.) 

The substances whose presence and proportion are shown by the 
ordinary sanitary analysis include those which serve as the food 
supply of micro-organisms, together with the substances of which 
those micro-organisms, both the good and the bad, are made up. 
Chemistry does determine the harmful substances or the toxins, 
but in ordinary analytical work no practicable method is known for 
separating these substances and determining their proportions. The 
chemist can distinguish between those nitrogenous organic matters 
that are of a proteid character and serve as a food supply for micro¬ 
organisms and other nitrogenous organic matters that are not proteid 
in character, but are the products of vital processes, such as toxins. 
(5650-5652.) 


200 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


With reference to the frequency of the determinations, the witness 
said: 

While it is always desirable to have as many analyses as is possible, and even more 
than the number which I made for, say, * * * Kampsville, practical reasons 
* * * prevented my making more * * * during the periods covered in my 
testimony, and it is my opinion that the evidence * * * submitted covers the 

case reasonably well. * * * TJ ie water of Illinois River at Kampsville has not 
been at other times during the period in question materially different from the condi¬ 
tion revealed by the analyses which I have submitted in evidence. * * * 

It is quite possible, in the opinion of the witness, that different 
samples taken at the same point at the same time and by the same 
collector would show a material difference in chemical constituents 
when analyzed by different chemists, but the averages of a consider¬ 
able number of such samples would not be materially different, 
although no table of averages would give a correct representation of 
the water in this stream at all times. (5660-5661.) 

The witness stated that the analytical methods used bv Professor 
Jordan of the University of Chicago, by Mr. Bisbee of the Chicago 
health department, and by himself were substantially the same. 
(5658-5659.) 

The following questions and answers appear on pages 5663-5666 of 
the record: 

Q. Professor, referring to Table No. 20, of the series of Tables 1 to 80, inclusive, intro¬ 
duced and read in evidence by yourself, and to Table 178, being tables introduced by 
the defendants and known as defendants’ tables of streams examinations, 1 to 190, 
which constitute a part of the testimony of Mr. Bisbee, w r e find upon comparison of 
these tables that during the month of September, 1899, there were samples collected 
by the water takers at that point, and t hese samples are known in the evidence of these 
water takers as companion samples, one of each of which was shipped to you and the 
other shipped to Mr. Bisbee, and of these samples you analyzed four, the analyses of 
which were made by you September 7, September 14, September 21, and September 
28; and of these samples Mr. Bisbee analyzed three, to wit, September 7, September 
14, and September 21. These samples were collected on the 6th, 13th, 20th, and 27th 
days of September, 1899. .Upon your determination of the chemical constituents of 
those samples, you found that on September 7 to contain 1.0 of organic nitrogen; of the 
samples analyzed on the 14th of September you found 0.84 of organic nitrogen, and of 
the sample analyzed on the 21st of September you found 1.0 of organic nitrogen, and 
the sample examined by you on the 28th of September you found 0.82 of organic 
nitrogen. Mr. Bisbee in his analyses found contained in the sample analyzed by him 
on September 7, total organic nitrogen, 0.(50; that analyzed on the 14th of September, 
organic nitrogen, 1.04, and that analyzed by him on the 21st day of September, total 
organic nitrogen, 0.76, no analyses having been made by him of the sample collected 
on the 27th of September so far as organic nitrogen was concerned. All these samples 
were taken from the Illinois Iliver at Kampsville. Now, do not these analyses show 
upon comparison a material difference with reference to the constituent known as 
total organic nitrogen in the waters of the Illinois River at Kampsville fqr the month of 
September, 1899, comparatively speaking? 


TESTIMONY OF ARTHUR W. PALMER. 


201 


A. They do not, in my opinion, show a substantial difference in the content of total 
organic nitrogen in the water of the Illinois River at Kampsville during the month of 
September, 1899, for the reason that they are, in my opinion, partly the result of differ¬ 
ences in the details of the method used in the determination of the total organic nitrogen, 
although the method employed was in general the same in both cases, that is, in the 
analyses made by Mr. Bisbee and those made by myself, and for the further reason that 
the averages for the month—that is, the average proportion for the three analyses made 
by Mr. Bisbee—namely, those made upon samples collected upon the 6th, the 13th, 
and the 20th of September, 1899, respectively, and those made by me upon samples 
collected upon the same days in the same month of 1899, which Samples were collected 
simultaneously with those analyzed by Mr. Bisbee, for I find that the average for the 
three determinations made by Mr. Bisbee were 0.8 part per million, the average for 
the three samples analyzed by me corresponding to the three examined by Mr. Bisbee 
were 0.95, a much less difference than is indicated between certain of the individual 
determinations included in these six analyses. 

Q. I will ask you, Professor, if that difference, taking the average difference between 
the examinations made by Professor Bisbee and those made by yourself, does not 
amount to 18.8 per cent, counting yours as 100 per cent, or as being accurate? 

A. Assuming as the basis for the calculation-my own average, 0.95, the difference 
between the two averages is 15.78 percent, while taking Mr. Bisbee’s average of 0.8 as 
the basis of the calculation the difference is 18.75 per cent. 

Q. Now, may not these same differences of 40 per cent, 23.8 per cent, and 24 per cent 
have occurred, even though you had made the analyses in both instances, for the month 
of September instead of having been made one by yourself and the other by Mr. 
Bisbee? 

A. In my opinion they would not. 

Q. Is it a fact that Mr. Bisbee’s results are always higher or lower than yours, or do 
they not vary first one way and then the other? 

A. So far as I am aware they vary in both directions, some of them being higher and 
some of them being lower than my own. 

Q. Now I will ask you, Professor, if it is not a fact that a comparison of the analytical 
results of the samples of water collected in September, 1899, at Kampsville and examined 
by yourself and by Professor Bisbee do not show either a very rapid change in the 
chemical condition of that water or do not show extensive variations, chemically 
speaking, in the water at that time and place and even on the dates and at the hour of 
collecting the samples? 

A. In my opinion, these variations in the results of the analyses do not indicate 
similarly considerable variations in the actual content of the total organic nitrogen in 
the water samples collected at the same date and hour, nor do they show rapid varia¬ 
tions in these substances contained in the water; but, in my opinion, the variations in 
the determinations as recorded in the tables you have quoted are very largely the 
result of differences in the details of the method employed in making these determina¬ 
tions, to which I have referred in my answer to the preceding question. 

Q. Do those variations—to wit, variations comparatively speaking, shown between 
the analyses made by yourself and those made by Mr. Bisbee—result from differences 
in accuracies or differences in inaccuracies? 

A. Doubtless they are in part due to both; but in my opinion in the main they are 
due to variations in the details of the processes to which I have referred in my answers 
to the two preceding questions. 


202 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


No allowance had been made in reporting the analytical results 
presented in the evidence of the witness for errors resulting from 
changes in organic matter during the period of transit from sampling 
point to laboratory, because the conditions governing these changes 
were similar throughout the six-year period. Consequently such 
changes as had occurred would affect all the samples, and therefore 
the basis of comparison of the first half with the last half of said period 
would not be affected. The variations arising from considering a 
sample taken at any time as representative of the water in the entire 
stream are, in the opinion of the witness, eliminated in a long series of 
analyses, and a series of results is afforded that may he considered 
strictly comparable. (5680-5683.) 

Q. Professor, assuming that there is discharged into the Illinois River, by means of 
the drainage canal, the sewage from the city of Chicago, which contains certain organ¬ 
isms which produce typhoid fever; assuming that those organisms are of a living char¬ 
acter and that they live in the sewage of Chicago, the drainage canal, and the waters of 
the Illinois River from five to thirty days or more, disappearing by death gradually at 
from five to thirty days or more, until at the end of thirty days or more all have become 
innocuous; assuming further that they flow down the canal to the Illinois River with 
the water and with the same velocity as the water in the canal and the river. Assuipe 
that the mean velocity from Chicago to St. Louis is eighteen days; assume that the 
average life of these organisms has expired at some point between Averyville and Graf¬ 
ton, but assume also that, as heretofore stated, the extreme life limits will carry them 
in thirty days or more to a point far below St. Louis. State whether or not a table of 
averages upon the life limit of these organisms, which shows that such average took 
place at some point in the river between Averyville and Grafton, can be used by a 
sanitarian or by a sanitary chemist as proof, from a practical sanitary standpoint, that 
no such disease-producing organisms pass a given point between Averyville and Graf¬ 
ton and do not reach the St. Louis intake at the Chain of Rocks and pass beyond the 
city of St. Louis. 

A. It, in my opinion, can not; but the conditions prevailing in the Mississippi River 
between Grafton and the Chain of Rocks as to tin* mixing of the waters in the Illinois 
with the waters of the Mississippi and the waters of the Missouri render it, in my opinion, 
highly improbable that any considerable proportion of such pathogenic germs as may 
be contained in the waters of the Illinois at Grafton—that is, if we grant the assumption 
of the question—passes down the Mississippi to the point below, St. Louis, and is taken 
into the intake of the St. L6uis waterworks. (5(394-5(197.) 


TESTIMONY FOR DEFENDANTS. 


203 


THOMAS J. BURRILL. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Thomas J. Burrill, called as a witness in behalf of the defend¬ 
ants, stated that he had graduated from the Illinois State Normal 
University in 1863, having specialized in biology, and that since that 
time he had been engaged continuously in botanical studies, espe¬ 
cially crypt ogamic. lie had been teaching botany at the University 
of Illinois for thirty-five years and at the date of testimony was 
professor of botany there. He had lectured before different societies 
in this country and in England and had received the degrees of M. A., 
Ph. D., and LL. I). He had made numerous official water studies in 
the State of Illinois. (5711-5716.) 

Beginning in May, 1899, the witness made a series of bacterio¬ 
logical examinations of samples from selected points on Illinois 
River and tributaries, including the Chicago drainage canal, in col¬ 
laboration with Professors Palmer and Jordan. The results of these 
examinations are set forth in Table 64. (5724—5725.) 

In introducing the above results, the witness stated that the decrease 
in the number of bacteria between Morris and Ottawa is out of all 
proportion to that which would be caused by the dilution received 
from tributary streams, indicating that there has been a considerable 
degree of purification. The decrease is maintained to Averyville, 
where the number equals that of ordinary river water not subject to 
contamination, proving that the pollution from Chicago has practically 
disappeared. The same is true at Grafton. The figures further show 
that there is practically no difference in bacteriological purity between 
the waters of Illinois River above Grafton and of Mississippi River 
above Grafton, but that the water from Missouri River at Fort Belle- 
fontaine has greater contamination than the other two. The witness 
could not state probable causes, but noted that the temperature of 
Missouri River was lower than that of the Mississippi, which had 
something to do with the lessened rate of decrease—that is, in lower¬ 
ing the activity of the bacteria that destroy the organic matter. 
(5748-5749.) 

The witness then gave the results of his tests for Bacillus coli com¬ 
munis during June, July, August, and September, 1899 and 1900. 
The figures in Table 65 are based on the diagrams, page 5754, and 
there may be some small errors due to incorrect reading of the scales. 
They are probably not significant, however. 


Table 64. —Monthly averages of determinations of the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in samples of water taken at designated points. 


204 


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206 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 65. — Identification of Bacillus coli communis in Illinois and Mississippi rivers 
and tr ibutary streams, 1899-1900, by percentage of total tests. 


Sampling point. 


Per cent posi¬ 
tive. 


Desplaines River at Joliet. 

Kankakee River at Wilmington. 

Illinois River at Morris... 

Illinois River at Ottawa. 

Fox River at Ottawa. 

Illinois and Michigan Canal at La Salle 

Vermilion River at La Salle. 

Illinois River at La Salle. 

Illinois River at Henry. 

Illinois River at Averyville.... 

Illinois River at Wesley. 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

Illinois River at Havana. 

Sangamon River at Chandlerville. 

Illinois River at Beardstown. 

Illinois River at Kampsville. 

Illinois River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River at Alton. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine.. 
Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks... 


1899. 

1900. 

100 

45 

37 

58 

71 

33 

43 

20 

30 

22 

9D 

46 

43 

40 

40 

13 

27 

31 

23 

17 

100 

88 

91 

87 

50 

46 

27 

36 

45 

47 

45 

64 

17 

53 

30 

38 

26 

45 


62 

91 

74 


In discussing the diagrams, the witness pointed out that Bacillus 
coli communis was found more frequently in Missouri River at Fort 
Bellefontaine than in Illinois River above Grafton, and somewhat less 
frequently in Mississippi River above Grafton than at either of the 
other two places. The least number of positive results was found 
at Averyville. (5756.) 

The witness then gave the following results of examinations made 
during October to December, 1901. (5761-5769.) 


Table 66.— Average results of examinations of water from designated points, October to 

December, 1901. 


Sampling point. 

Average 
number of 
bacteria per 
cubic centi¬ 
meter. 

Per cent 

B. coli 
communis. 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

13,691 
299,000 
8.441 

5, 407 
127,353 
63, 402 
52,177 
43.185 
127,862 
32,845 

6.2 

7.6 

10.7 
11.5 
57. 1 
41.1 

21.7 
50 

36.3 

57 

Illinois River at Pekin. 

Illinois River above Grafton. 

Mississippi River above Grafton. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks (average of four points).. 

Illinois shore. 

Midstream. 

Intake tower... 

Missouri shore. 



The witness then stated that the conclusions to be drawn from the 
above results are the same as those from the series of 1899 and 1900. 
He pointed out that the cross-section samples at Chain of Rocks show 
that the pollution is least at the Illinois shore and increases to the 
Missouri shore. (5773.) 

























































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 207 

I lie witness then stated that the sewage of Chicago does not pro¬ 
duce any effect on Mississippi River. (5774-5775.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

From experiments made on the longevity of Bacillus prodigiosus 
the witness had come to the conclusion that the germ does not persist 
in water for a great length of time, especially when associated with 
water bacteria. He had never observed them to live longer than five 
days. (5792.) 

No further new facts were brought forward in the cross-examination 
of Professor Burrill. 

EDWIN OAKES JORDAN. 


DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Edwin Oakes Jordan, called as a witness in behalf of the defendants, 
qualified by stating that he was associate professor of bacteriology at 
the University of Chicago and had been connected with that univer¬ 
sity in various positions from associate through the various grades to 
his present appointment. He graduated from the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology in 1888 and then studied for a time at the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York. After this he was 
for nearly two years in the employ of the Massachusetts State board of 
health in connection with work being done at the Lawrence experi¬ 
ment station. Subsequent thereto he went to Clark University, at 
Worcester, Mass., where he received the degree of doctor of philoso¬ 
phy. He remained there until he went to Chicago in 1892. During 
his term of service at the Lawrence experiment station he had charge 
of the bacterial work and was familiar with the chemical work, having 
received training therein at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
He had taught public hygiene at the University of Chicago for several 
years, and in lectures on that subject had been obliged to deal with 
the classic epidemics of this country and abroad; he had also studied 
several epidemics at first hand. He was at Lowell for a short time 
with Professor Sedgwick during the typhoid epidemic there, and since 
had visited Stamford, Conn., where there had been an epidemic of 
typhoid fever, attributed to infected milk. More recently he had 
visited Ithaca, N. Y., and examined the watershed of the stream 
which was the source of water supply for that town. He had given 
considerable attention to what is known as bacteriological sanitary 
science, including epidemiology and water chemistry. (5805—5807.) 

In connection with his work on Illinois River he stated that there 
were three periods of investigations, one extending from April, 1899, 
to the end of the year; the second from January 1 to the end of June, 


208 


POLLUTION OF FIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


1900, and the third from October, 1901, to January 1 , 1902. These 
investigations included samples from the Illinois and Michigan Canal; 
the Chicago drainage canal; Illinois River and its branches, the Des- 
plaines, Kankakee, Fox, Vermilion, and Sangamon; Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers, and Lake Michigan. The location of the sampling 
stations which were maintained during these investigations will be 
indicated in the tabular statement of analytical results. (5807-5809.) 

The third series of investigations at designated points was under¬ 
taken by agreement with the authorities of the State of Missouri. 
Branch laboratories were established under direction of the witness 
at Peoria, Grafton, and St. Louis. That at Peoria was in charge of 
F. W. Schule, that at Grafton in charge of W. S. Sayer, and that at 
St. Louis in charge of E. E. Irons and W. G. Sackett. All four of 
these men qualified in testimony. They sent in written reports of 
their work at weekly intervals, keeping duplicate copies of these 
reports on tile at the separate laboratories. The greater part of the 
work was carried on in the laboratory of the University of Chicago 
by the witness with the assistance of Prof. F. L. Stevens and by 
W. G. Sackett and E. E. Irons, except during the periods when they 
were engaged in the branch laboratories. The witness stated that 
in selecting the men to take samples at the various stations a special 
effort had been made to obtain the services of trustworthy persons. 
Fidl directions and instructions were given to these men, a reproduc¬ 
tion of which appears on pages 5811-5812 of the record. / The witness 
then related the various methods of procedure and discussed the 
determinations. The routine work in the bacteriological analvsis 
consisted of a determination of the number of bacteria capable of 
forming colonies upon a nutrient agar plate and a determination of 
the relative abundance of the Bacillus coli communis. (5809-5814.) 

The witness then gave the results of the determinations made in 
the first and second periods, the evidence being read into the record 
in tables designated from 81 to 158, inclusive. (5818-5950.) 

The average results of these examinations are given in Table 67. 
(5958-5959.) 

The witness then gave his interpretations of the results of the analy¬ 
ses in the series of 1899 as follows: 


The water in the Illinois and Michigan Canal at Bridgeport and 
Lockport, as well as that of Desplaines River at Joliet and of Illi¬ 
nois River at Morris, contains a large amount of nitrogenous organic 
matter in the early stages of decomposition. The high proportion 
of chlorine indicated the greatest pollution during the period cited; 
also the large amount of bacteria present in the samples showed that 
there were in the water substances capable of serving as food for this 
great abundance of organisms. The tables further show that at Ottawa 


TESTIMONY OF EDWTN O. JORDAN. 


209 


a very great change lias taken place in the composition of the river 
water, due to dilution from Kankakee River as well as to oxidation 
and sedimentation. This change is manifested especially by the 
diminution in the amount of albuminoid ammonia, the increase in 
the amount of nitrites and nitrates, and particularly by the enor¬ 
mous diminution in the bacterial content. This purification con¬ 
tinues with the passage of the river downstream, and by the time the 
water reaches Averyville its character has so improved that its qual¬ 
ity is comparable with ordinary surface waters in the United States, 
and especially with that of the tributaries of Illinois River. (5819- 
5845.) 


Below Averyville the analyses show the influence of the large influx 
of polluting material from Peoria and its stockyards and distilleries, 
evidenced by the increase in albuminoid and free ammonia and in the 
number of bacteria. Additional pollution is shown in the Pekin 
samples, but from this point to the mouth of the river the purification 
follows a generally progressive course until at Grafton the amount of 
free and albuminoid ammonia and the oxygen consumed, the num¬ 
ber of bacteria, and the relatively high amount of nitrites all bear 
witness to the practically complete oxidation of the enormous 
amount of organic matter with which the river water is laden at 


Lockport and Peoria. (5847-5859.) 

Concerning the analyses made in 1900 the witness stated that the 
samples taken from the Chicago drainage canal showed considerable 
dilution as compared with the water in Chicago River. Examination 
of the analyses of samples of water from Illinois River at Morris 
showed that the river is charged with a large amount of organic 
matter, as is evidenced by the large amount of nitrogen in the form of 
albuminoid and free ammonia, by the oxygen consumed, and by the 
high number of bacteria. Considerable purification is shown by the 
Ottawa samples, all the ammonia and oxygen consumed determina¬ 
tions being smaller and the number of bacteria being a little more than 
one-fourth of the number in the river water at Morris during the same 
period. At Averyville a still greater purification is shown; the same 
polluting influences at Peoria and Pekin as in 1899 are apparent in 
this series, and, finally, a nearly complete purification is shown in the 
determinations at Grafton. The self-purification of Illinois River dur¬ 
ing the whole period 1899-1900 is noticeable in character and extent, 
both at high and low water and at high and low temperature, and 
shows convincingly that under the conditions prevailing in the Illi¬ 
nois Valley the self-purification of streams “is not an interesting 
biological myth but an actual and definite occurrence.” (5963-5965.) 


irr 194—07 


14 


Table 67. — Average.results of analyses of water Jrom Illinois and Mississippi river systems at designated points, 1899-1900. 

•* 

i [Parts per million.] 


210 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Bacteria, 

percubic 

centi¬ 

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1,245,000 

631,000 

650,000 

1,755,000 

9,380 

12,500 

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TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


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Table 67 —Average result of analyses of water from Illinois and Mississippi river systems at designated points, 1899-1900— Continued. 


212 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


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TESTIMONY OE EDWIN 0. JORDAN. 


213 

So far as the chemical and bacterial conditions show, the condition 
of Illinois River at Kampsville, Averyville, and Grafton differs but 
slightly and in insufficient particulars from the water of the tributary 
streams. The witness then made the comparisons shown in Table 68. 
(5963-5967.) 


Table 68. —Comparison of samples from Illinois River and from its tributaries at stated 

points, 1899-1900. 


Sampling point. 

Albuminoid ammonia 
(parts per million). 

Oxygen 
consumed 
(parts per 
million), 
May to 
December, 
1899. 

Bacteria per cubic 
centimeter. 

June to 
December, 
1899. 

January to 
June, 1900. 

June to 
December, 
1899. 

January to 
June, 1900. 

Kankakee River at Wilmington. 

Fox River at Ottawa. 

Vermilion River at La Salle. 

0.352 

0.327 
.42 
.285 
.239 
.366 
.445 
.432 

8.3 

5,000 

6,500 

7,970 

5,080 

3,670 

4,810 

10,210 

16,100 
20,600 

19.200 

24.200 
51,800 
33,700 
21,100 

Sangamon River at Chandlerville. 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

Illinois River at Kampsville. 

. 447 

8.6 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

. 400 

7.8 


In considering the two cycles of self-purification which Illinois 
River undergoes in its course, the witness pointed out the similarity 
in the character of the water at Kampsville and Averyville, the 
former being about 124 mile-3 from the great source of pollution at 
Peoria and the latter about 130 miles from the great source of pollu¬ 
tion at Lockport. Throughout the period the presence of sewage 
from Chicago at Kampsville is not shown by any of the chemical deter¬ 
minations except that of chlorine, which is absolutely devoid of 
sanitary significance so far as purification of the stream is concerned, 
because it would be possible for a stream in the condition of Illinois 
River at Kampsville to be passed around the world several times in 
a closed conduit, consuming years or decades in the process, without 
materially altering the amount of chlorine in the water; and, in the 
judgment of the witness, on the supposition that the water were at the 
outset injurious to health, in the course of such a passage and in such 
a time it would become entirely free from any injurious qualities it 
might have originally possessed. (5968-5969.) 

The witness then presented charts showing the amounts of chlorine, 
albuminoid ammonia, and free ammonia, and the number of bacteria 
per cubic centimeter at the various sampling points in Illinois River 
during the two periods, and also a chart showing a comparison be¬ 
tween the number of bacteria in Mississippi and Illinois rivers above 
Grafton during the entire period. These charts are reproduced here¬ 
with. (Figs. 1 to 5.) The witness pointed out that they show the 
condition of the water throughout the river in 1900 to be superior to 
that in 1899 and that the chart showing the comparison of the num¬ 
ber of bacteria in Mississippi and Illinois rivers is favorable to the 
Illinois. (5971-5980.) 
































214 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

The .witness then took up the discussion of certain bacteriological 
determinations which he made along Illinois River between Morris 
and Ottawa, at Wesley, and at Grafton, the interval between the 
examinations in each series being one hour. The first, of this series 
was made at Morris, October 7, 1899. The day was clear and sunny, 
the temperature of the air being 7° C. at 6 o’clock in the morning and 



Fig. 1.—Diagram showing average chlorine in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, May and June, 1899 and 

1900. 

20.5° C. at midday. A slight breeze ruffled the surface of the water 
in the middle of the day, but was at no time strong. The river was 
1 w a d the current exceedingly sluggish. Two cross sections of the 
river were selected and three samples were taken hourly at approx¬ 
imately equidistant intervals from one another and from the shores. 
The upper cross section was at a point just above the confluence of 
Mazon River with the Illinois, the lower about three-fourths of a mile 
below the mouth of Waupecan Creek. Little, if any, water was pass¬ 
ing into the Illinois from these tributaries on this date. The stretch 
defined by these two cross sections is almost exactly 3 miles, and the 
rate of flow, as determined by floats and fluorescein, was found to be 
very close to one-half a mile per hour. The samples were plated 
immediately after collection. In Table 69 are given the results of the 
work. (5984-5986.) 
































































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN 


215 



Fig. 2.—Diagram showing average albuminoid ammonia in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, May and 

June, 1899 and 1900. 



Fig 3_Diagram showing average free ammonia in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, May and June, 1899 

and 1900. 































































































































216 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE 



Fig. 4.—Diagram showing average bacteria in Desplaines and Illinois rivers, May and June, 1899 and 

1900. 


140.000 

130.000 

.120.000 

110.000 

100,000 

90.000 

80.000 

70.000 

60,000 

50,000 

40,000 

30.000 

20.000 

10,000 

ii l i i i i i i i i r n i m i i i i i r m r i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i ■ i i i i i i ■ i | | | | | | | | 



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Fig. 5. Diagram showing bacteria in Mississippi and Illinois rivers at Grafton, Ill., May 24, 1899, to 

June 29, 1900. 























































































































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


217 


Table 69 . —Results of bacteriological determinations at Morris, October 7, 1899. 

UPPER STATION. 


Time. 

Sampling point. 

6.15 a. m. 

[Right bank. 

1 Center 

7:15 a. m. 

[Left bank. 

[Right bank. 

•j Center 

8.15 a. m. 

iLeft bank. 

(Right bank. 

< Center 

9.15 a. m. 

1 Left bank. 

[Right bank. 

<Center.. 


[Left bank. 


Bacteria 
per cubic 
centimeter. 

Turbidity 
(Hazen’s 
scale). 

Tempera¬ 
ture of 
water 
(°C). 

Chlorine 
(parts per 
million). 

500,000 

0.16 

13 


378,000 

.12 

13 


42,000 

.075 

13 


368,000 

.17 

13 


344,000 

. 125 

13 


35,000 

. 0775 

13 


752,000 

.16 

13.5 

91 

364,000 

. 11 

13 

69 

30,000 

. 0675 

13 

45 

554,000 

. 16 

14 


472,000 

.11 

14 


79,000 

.075 

14 



LOWER STATION. 


12.15 p.m 


1.15 p.m 

2.15 p.m 

3.15 p.m 


(Right bank. 

480,000 

0.13 

16 


■[Center. 

327 ' 000 

. 15 

16 


| Left bank. 

87' 000 

.05 

16.5 


(Right bank.. 

281'000 

. 1475 

16 


{Center. 

102,000 

.09 

16 


[ Left bank. 

19,000 

.042 

16 


j Right bank. 

400,000 

.13 

17 

87 

■{Center. 

249,000 

.09 

16 

72 

(Left bank. 

22,000 

.045 

16 

52 

(Right bank. 

412,000 

.136 

17 

82 

•j Center. 

416,000 

. 12 

16 

78 

(Left bank. 

11,000 

. 0433 

17 

53 


AVERAGES. 



Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Number 
of hourly 
analyses. 

Right 

bank. 

Center. 

Left bank. 

TTpppr station . 

543,700 
393,250 
27.6 

389,700 
273,500 
29.8 

46,500 
34,750 
25.3 

4 

4 

Lower station . 

Pprcentape of dp.crpa.se . . 




In discussing the above table, the witness directed attention to 
what he believed to be a great bacterial purification between the two 
stations and pointed out that the determinations show a much better 
water along the left bank, which is due to the fact that at these two 
stations the water from Kankakee River predominates along that 
side of the stream and the mixing of this water and that from the 
Desplaines is incomplete. 

The second series of observations was conducted November 9, 10, 
and 11, 1899, and was similar to that already outlined, except that 
it covered a more extended stretch of the river, namely, from Morris 
to Ottawa, the two being about 24 miles apart. At the time these 
observations were made the rate of flow averaged about one-half 
mile per hour. At Seneca, a point about midway between these two 
stations, a third cross section was selected. During the observations 
the sun was wholly obscured by clouds, but no rain fell. (5986-5988.) 






























































































218 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 70.— Results of bacteriological determinations at Morns, Seneca, and Ottawa, 

November 9-11, 1899. 

MORRIS (NOVEMBER 9). 


Time. 

Sampling point. 

Bacteria 
per cubic 
centimeter. 

Turbidity 

(Hazen’s 

scale). 

Tempera¬ 
ture of 
water (°C.). 

Chlorine 
(parts per 
million). 


( Right bank. 

433,000 

0. 153 



7.15 a. m. 

•j Center. 

337,000 

. 13 




| Left bank. 

30,000 

. 040 




j Right bank. 

177, (XX) 

.17 

7.25 

67.5 

11.30 a. in. 

J Center. 

145,000 

. IS 

7. 25 

47. 5 


1 Left bank. 

17,000 

.02 

7.25 

8 


(Right bank. 

174,000 

. 15 

3 


2 p. m. 

1 Center. 

131, (KM) 

. 135 

3 


' 

iLeft bank. 

49,000 

.05 

3 



SENECA (NOVEMBER 10). 



(Right bank. 

134,000 

Less than 

9.5 


51 




0.09. 




9 a. m. i 

Center.... 

47,000 

More than 

9.5 


44 

* 


0.07. 



Left bank. 

23,000 


9 5 


35 


Right bank. 

67,000 


11 



1.30 p. m. ]i 

Center_ 

52, (MX) 


11 



Left bank. 

52,000 


11 

r 







OTTAWA (NOVEMBER 11). 



(Right bank... 

11,000 
10,500 
3,900 
12,000 

(Less than 

( 9.5 

9.5 
9.5 
9. 5 

49 

46 

43 

10 a. ni. 

< Center.. 


(Left bank. 

( 0.04. 


(Right bank. 


1 p. m. 

< Center.... 

11.000 


9 5 



(Left bank. 

18,000 


9.5 







AVERAGES. 



Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Number 
of analy¬ 
ses. 

Right bank. 

Center. 

Left bank. 

Morris. 

261,000 

204,000 

29.000 

3 

Seneca. 

100.000 

49.000 

35,000 

2 

Ottawa. 

11,500 

10,700 

13,500 

2 


In discussing the above results the witness stated that, according to 
the figures, Illinois River, during this flow of 24 miles became nearly 
free from the great mass of sewage bacteria with which it was orim- 
nally laden—in fact, the bacterial content of the-Illinois at Ottawa 
on the above date was not greatly in excess of that of the local tribu¬ 
tary streams. 

He then reviewed the results of the chemical determinations made 
during the regular examinations at the Chicago laboratory during the 
period between October 23 and November 20, 1899, the points of col¬ 
lection being Morris and Ottawa, These results, according to the 
witness, show that a considerable degree of nitrification takes place in 
the river between these two stations. 






















































































































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


219 


The third series of observations was made at the same points as the 
second series, May 24, 25, and 26. The sun was partially obscured 
May 25, but shone brightly on the remaining two days; no rain 
occurred during the period. The results are presented in Table 71. 
(5988-5990.) 

Table 71 .—Results of bacteriological determinations at Morris, Seneca, and Ottawa, 

May 24-26, 1900. 


MORRIS (MAY 24). 


Time. 

• 

Sampling point. 

Bacteria 
per cubic 
centimeter. 

Tempera¬ 
ture of 
water (°C.). 

Chlorine 
(parts per 
million.) 


[Right bank. 

45,000 
74,000 
42,000 
60,000 
34,000 
39,000 
98,000 
62,000 
30,000 
70,000 
63,000 
48,000 

15. 5 

20 

7.30 a. in. 

J Center.. 

17. 5 

13 

8 


| Left bank.. 

18 


[Right bank. 

15.5 


9.30 a. m. . 

) Center. 

17 



| Left bank. 

18 



(Right bank. 

15. 75 


11.30 a. m. 

] Center. 

17 



| Left bank. 

18 



[Right bank. 

16 

21 

2 p. m.« ... 

<( Center. 

17 

14 


[Left bank. 

18 

6 



SENECA (MAY 25). 


(Right bank. 

13,800 

11,700 

16.5 

19. 5 

7.30 a. m. _ 

-J Center. 

16 

13 


[Left bank. 

4.100 



(Right bank. 

12; 700 
14,000 

17 


9.30 a.m. _ 

■j Center. 




[Left bank. 

16,000 

4,500 

4,100 



- 

| Right bank. 

17.5 


11.30 a. tu .. 

•[ Center. 




| Left bank. 

3,000 
5,500 




[Right bank. 

18.5 

16 

1.30 p. m. . 

\ Center. 

6,700 

18.8 

15 


[Left bank. 

13,100 

19. 7 

12 



OTTAWA (MAY 26). 


(Right bank. 

7,400 

18.5 

15 

8.30 a. m . 

1 Center. 

10,000 

18.5 

14 


[Left bank. 

8,300 

18. 5 

13 


(Right bank. 

8,100 

19 

17 

11 a. m . 

•} Center. 

6,800 

. 19.2 

15 


[Lpft bank. 

6,400 

19. 2 

14 


[Right bank. 

9,000 

19. 5 

17 

2 00 p m . 

•J Center. 

6,300 

19.5 

16 


[beft. bank. 

4,200 

20 

14 




a Samples were taken at this time and submitted to chemical examination, with the following results 
stated in parts per million: 


Right 

bank. 

Center. 

Left bank. 

Residue on evaporation: 

Tnt.a 1 . 

232 

246 

308 


230 

244 

285 


2 

2 

23 


• 21 

14 

6 

Oxygen consumed: 

Total . 

6. 6 

7.2 

8.8 


6.1 

6.0 

4.7 


.5 

1.2 

4. 1 


2.28 

1.08 

.24 

Albuminoid ammonia: 

Total . 

.256 

. 296 

.240 


.224 

.224 

. 168 


.032 

.072 

.072 


.072 

.050 

. 040 


.4 

1.1 

. 95 











































































































































220 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 71. —Results of bacteriological determinations at Morris, Seneca, and Ottawa, 

May 24-26, 1900 —Continued. 

AVERAGES. 


Morris. 

Seneca. 

Ottawa 


Bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Right 

bank. 

Center. 

Left bank. 

68,200 

58,200 

39,800 

9,100 

9,100 

10,300 

8,200 

7,700 

6,300 


Number 
of analy¬ 
ses. 


The witness stated that the above results show a more complete 
mixing of the Kankakee and Desplaines waters, also a smaller num¬ 
ber of bacteria, than in the determinations made in 1899. It should 
be remembered in this connection that this last series of examina¬ 
tions was made after the opening of the Chicago drainage canal. 
The witness then made the following statement: 

I see no escape from the conclusion that in this flow of approximately 24 miles the 
Illinois River, which at Morris contained a large number of bacteria, in all probability 
derived more or less directly from the sewers of Chicago, freed itself from these bac¬ 
teria to a remarkable and impressive degree in a short distance and in a relatively 
short space of time. (5991.) ' 

These observations on the bacterial content of the river at Morris 
and Ottawa indicated that a very large proportion of the bacteria 
entering at Lockport do not survive long enough to reach Ottawa, 
which fact renders it improbable that disease germs can pass down 
the stream as far as this point. Since the sewage bacteria disap¬ 
peared so largely, it is fair to assume that the various nonspore¬ 
forming pathogenic bacteria must die out at least in the same pro¬ 
portion. In giving this opinion, the witness stated that he was 
taking into consideration all the knowledge that he possessed of the 
life of pathogenic germs and their relation to sewage bacteria. (5993.) 

The witness then described some cross-section experiments which 
he had made at Wesley, June 13, 1900, the results being as follows: 


Table 72. —Results of bacteriological determinations at Wesley, June 13, 1900. 



F ree am¬ 
monia 
(parts per 
million). 

Albumi¬ 
noid am¬ 
monia 
(parts per 
million). 

Bacteria 
per cubic 
centimeter. 

Right bank. 

0. 504 
. 144 
.168 

00 

© 

4,340,000 
40,000 
2, 400 

Center. 

Left bank . 



According to the witness, the large amount of pollution entering 
the river from Peoria on the right bank is clearly shown in this series 
of samples, the quantity of free and albuminoid ammonia and the 
number of bacteria being very much greater on the right than on 


^ ^ co 





































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 221 

the left bank of the stream, lie then stated that on a number of 
occasions both in 1899 and 1900 similar cross-section samples were 
taken from Illinois River at Grafton, but only the determination of 
bacteria per cubic centimeter was made. In a general way the 
results showed that the samples taken near the right and left banks 
of the stream were not materially different from those taken at the 
center, the mixing of the water being complete at this point. Slight 
variations were sometimes noticed, but they were not confined to 
any particular portion of the stream. (5992-5993.) 

The witness then took up the discussion of Bacillus coli communis , 
and in response to leading questions gave the following testimony: 

Bacillus coli communis in large numbers inhabits a portion of the 
alimentary tract known as the colon. It is sluggishly motile and 
does not form spores. It is found in the intestinal discharges of man 
and of other higher animals and also in soils and waters contaminated 
with animal excreta. Sometimes it is found in the dust of the 
streets, its occurrence there being probably due to infection from 
horse droppings. The colon bacillus is in many ways similar to the 
typhoid bacillus. It resembles the latter in shape, size, motility, 
and lack of spore formation so closely that bacteriologists have 
some difficulty in distinguishing between the two organisms. The 
growth of both upon beef broth and gelatine agar is apparently 
identical. In fact, both bacteria belong to a group in which there 
are both pathogenic and nonpathogenic organisms. Although the 
typhoid and the colon bacillus are thus intimately related, there are, 
nevertheless, certain constant characteristics which enable an experi¬ 
enced observer to distinguish between them. Some of the main 
points of difference are that the colon bacillus is able to ferment 
dextrose with gas production, while the typhoid bacillus does not 
under any circumstances produce gas. When grown in milk the 
colon bacillus produces acid from the milk sugar and curdles the 
milk, while the typhoid bacillus is not able to do this. 

The colon bacillus is much more hardy than the typhoid bacillus. 
Comparative tests of viability have shown the following: 

1. Ninety-nine and nine-tenths per cent of Bacillus coli and 100 
per cent of B. typhosus were removed by an intermittent water filter, 
and 99.8 per cent of the former and 99.9 per cent of the latter were 
removed by a continuous filter. 

2. After the infected water had been applied to these filters, B. 
coli was found to continue in the effluent from the intermittent filter 
for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, while the B. typhosus continued 
only for two or three hours. 

3. In a water subjected to a temperature of 33° F. about 90 to 95 
per cent of both species were destroyed in twenty-four hours. A 


222 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


few organisms of eacli species may, however, live for a considerable 
number of days. 

4. About 55 per cent of B. coli and 75 per cent of B. typhosus were 
destroyed by about fifteen minutes freezing. After one hour 85 
per cent of the former and 98 per cent of the latter were killed. At 
the end of twenty-four hours over 99 per cent of all the organisms 
had disappeared. 

5. Both species resist temperatures up to 45° C. for five minutes; 
between 45° and 50° C. all but a few individuals of each species are 
destroyed. These few individuals, however, resisted temperatures up 
to 85° C, at which all organisms of both species were destroyed. 

The witness further stated that, according to some experiments 
made by him on the typhoid bacillus when introduced into sterilized 
Lake Michigan water, the organism does not multiply, but may under 
certain conditions maintain its vitality for upward of ninety-three 
days. Bacillus coli communis, on the other hand, multiply rapidly in 
this water and may remain alive for upward of two hundred and 
sixty-three days. (5995-5997.) 

Summing up the above, the witness stated that it is clear that while 
the two species resemble each other in many important points, the 
colon bacillus has been proved to possess a greater resistance than 
the typhoid bacillus. 

Concerning the significance of the Bacillus coli communis determina¬ 
tion in sanitary water analyses, the witness stated that this bacillus is 
one of the prevailing bacterial forms in fresh sewage, and for this rea¬ 
son its presence and relative abundance in water are regarded as con¬ 
stituting one of the most significant indications of recent sewage pol¬ 
lution. He then cited experiments made by Dr. William G. Bissell, 
of Buffalo, and Dr. William G. Savage, of University College, Cardiff, 
Wales; also a report of a committee of the laboratory section of the 
American Public Health Association, all of which showed the signifi¬ 
cance of the presence of B. coli communis as indicating sewage pollution. 
He then cited the work carried on in*connection with the establish¬ 
ment of a water-purification system at New Orleans in 1903, and made 
a quotation from page 47 of this report as follows: 

In waters which contain unpurified sewage the test for this intestinal organism is of 
the utmost importance. In the Mississippi River at New Orleans, however, there is 
evidently so much self-purification effected by natural agencies, such as dilution, sedi¬ 
mentation, etc., that this normal intestinal bacillus was one of the least common forms 
isolated. In about 100 tests with a volume of water varying from 1 to 300 c. c. its pres¬ 
ence was demonstrated only three times, although the larger samples of water were con¬ 
centrated in a centrifuge before being seeded into the media conveyed in fermentation 
tubes. 

Further quotation was made from the report, contrasting the above 
evidence with that of the water from the Merrimac at Lawrence, the 
Hudson below the Mohawk, the Ohio at Cincinnati, the Schuylkill, and 


223 


TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 

the Potomac, and a further observation was made that the conditions 
in Mississippi River above New Orleans are so favorable for self- 
purification during the last few hundred miles of its flow that the 
normal bacteria of surface water effectually crowd out those derived 
from populated and cultivated areas. This instance was regarded by 
the witness as especially significant of the ability of streams to purify 
themselves, especially in view of the fact that countless millions of 
colon bacilli are contributed by the cities in the Ohio, Illinois, upper 
Mississippi, and Missouri basins. (6000-6004.) 

The witness then outlined the methods used for isolating the colon 
bacillus (see pp. 6005-6008 of the record) and gave an account of 
experiments made on the water of the Illinois and Mississippi systems 
at various points. The results of the experiments and the points of 
collection are shown in Table 73. (6009-6035.) 

» 

Table 73 .—Results of presumptive tests for Bacillus coli communis on samples of water 
. from designated points before and after the opening of the Chicago drainage canal. 


Sampling point. 


Illinois and Michigan Canal at 

Lockport.. 

Drainage canal at Kedzie avenue. 

Drainage canal at Lockport. 

Desplaines River at Lockport. . . 
Kankakee River at Wilmington . 


Illinois River at Morris. 
Fox River at Ottawa ... 


1'linois River at Ottawa.... 

Vermilion River at La Salle. 
Illinois River at LajSalle... 

Illinois River at Henry. 


Illinois River at Averyville. 
Illinois River at Wesley- 


Illinois Riyer at Havana. 

Sangamon River at Chandlerville 
Illinois River at Grafton. 


Mississippi River at Grafton.... 

Mississippi River at Alton: 

East bank. 

East of center. 

Center. 

West of center.- 

West bank. 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefon- 
taine. 


Mississippi River at intake tower. 


St. Louis tap water. 

Total for Illinois River. 

Tributaries of Illinois River... 
Mississippi and Missouri rivers 


Date. 

0.00001 
c. e. 

0.0001 
c. c. 

0.001 
c. c. 

0.01 c.c. 

0.1 c.c. 

1 c. c. 

5c 

c. 

Number of days 
wa; er examined. 

Number of days i 
B. coli found. 

Number of days 
water examined. 

Number of days 
B. coli found. 

Number of days 
water examined. 

Number of days 
B. coli found". 

Number of days 
water examined. 

Number of days 
B. coli found. 

Number of days 
water examined. 

Number of days 
B. coli found. 

Number of days 
water examined. 

Nnmber of days. 

B. coli found- 

Number of days 

wa + er examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found". 

( 1899 

8 

9 

0 

9 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 




[ 1900 

20 

5 

24 

19 

10 


3 

3 

1 

1 




1900 

3 

0 


1 

8 

3 


4 

3 

3 




1900 

9 

6 

10 

1 

11 

3 

10 

0 

4 

4 


• 



1899 

^ ’ 




1 

0 

8 

1 

5 

2 



1899 









6 

3 

5 

4 



f 1899 



3 

1 

5 

5 

5 

5 







\ 1900 





15 

6 

25 

15 

23 

20 

9 

8 



| 1899 









9 

0 

8 

1 



\ 1900 









13 

2 

15 

5 

13 

10 

/ 1899 







8 

4 

12 

■ 7 

10 

6 



\ 1900 







14 

2 

22 

12 

22 

14 

6 

4 

1899 









6 

1 

9 

3 



1899 









7 

2 

8 

3 



f 1899 







1 

0 

0 

2 

8 

3 



\ 1900 









2 

9 

3 

3 



| 1899 









5 

i 

9 

2 



t 1900 







1 

0 

23 

3 

22 

ii 



f 1899 



1 

0 



3 

0 

7 

3 

4 

2 



\ 1900 



6 

1 



19 

3 

19 

10 

14 

11 



1899 
j ]899 









4 

2 

8 

6 











3 

2 

5 

3 


.... 

1 1900 







13 

4 

22 

12 

22 

18 



f 1899 







3 

1 

id 

4 

13 

7 



{ 1900 







1 

0 

25 

10 

25 

19 

4 

2 

| 1899 







2 

0 

10 

1 

11 

6 



\ J900 









24 

9 

24 

17 

4 

3 

18QU 









7 

0 

7 

1 



1899 









7 

1 

7 

1 



1 CQQ 









7 

1 

7 

1 



1 QQQ 









7 

2 

7 

2 



1899 









5 

0 

5 

2 



f 1899 









6 

0 

6 

1 



1 ionn 







6 

3 

26 

13 

25 

20 



f 1899 









5 

2 

5 

3 



1 ionn 







2 

2 

17 

ii 

17 

14 



( 18QQ 









5 

0 

5 

3 



1 i onn 









24 

5 

25 

12 












62 

17 

69 

39 


1 










66 

21 

69 

36 












66 

23 

66 

44 


.... 










--- 





t 







































































































































































224 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Referring to the above results, the witness made the following 
statements: 

On comparing the number of days on which Bacillus coli was 
found in 1 c. c. of water taken from Illinois River at Averyville and 
Grafton, from the Mississippi at Grafton, from the Desplaines, from 
the Kankakee, from the Fox, from the Vermilion, from the Sanga¬ 
mon, and from the Missouri, it appears that, so far as the colon- 
bacillus content enables one to pass an opinion on the sanitary 
quality of these waters, Sangamon River at Cliandlerville is one of 
the more highly polluted streams. 

The Illinois at Grafton, the Mississippi at Grafton, and the Mis¬ 
souri at Fort Bellefontaine appeared to be on substantially the same 
footing with one another in respect to their colon-bacillus content, 
while the Fox contained a smaller proportion of colon bacilli than 
any other of the streams under consideration. 

The Illinois at Averyville compares in respect to its colon-bacillus 
content very favorably with the Illinois and Mississippi above Graf¬ 
ton and the Missouri above its mouth and is perceptibly less highly 
contaminated than the Sangamon at Chandlerville. 

To sum up these facts, it is seen that samples of water taken on 
sixty-nine different days from Illinois River at Averyville and at 
Grafton contained Bacillus coli communis on thirty-nine days, while 
samples taken from the various tributaries of the Illinois on sixty- 
nine days contained the colon bacillus on thirty-six days. Samples 
taken from the Missouri on sixty-six days contained the colon bacil¬ 
lus on forty-four days. 

It appears, therefore, from these tables that if the opinion expressed 
by the witness regarding the sanitary significance of the colon bacil¬ 
lus in water is correct, the water of Illinois River at Avervville and 
Grafton was not materially different from what it would have been 
if the tributaries of the Illinois, exclusive of Desplaines River and 
its sewage content, had alone fed the basins of this stream. The 
colon-bacillus content of such a stream at Averyville and at Grafton 
would have been substantially what it is at present. (6038-6039.) 

In connection with the discussion of these results, the "witness 
made the interesting statements reproduced below in response to 
specific questions: 

Q. Professor, I desire to call your attention to the testimony of Doctor Ravold. 
On page 150 of his testimony given in this case Doctor Ravold testified that the 
colon bacillus was found in 72 per cent of the samples taken from the Rear Trap 
dam at Lockport in the month of March, 1900, and at page 320 of his testimony he 
testified that the Bacillus coli communis was found in 71 per cent of the samples col¬ 
lected from the St. Louis settling basins during the period from May 1 to October 31, 
1900. Would you infer from those statements that colon bacillus was present in the 
water of these settling basins in St. Louis in anything like the same proportion that 
it was in the wafer of the drainage canal at Lockport? 


TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JOED AN. 


225 


A. I certainly should not. 

Q. Give your reasons. 

A. It is very important in making the test for the colon bacillus, especially when 
a polluted water is being dealt with, to use dilutions of the water high enough 1 
prevent the overgrowth of the colon bacillus by other sewage forms. I have fr< 
quently in my own experience found that by the use of so large a quantity of watv 
as 1 c. c. apparently negative results are obtained, while by examinatio 

of a smaller quantity of the same water positive results invariably appear. Th 
explanation for this phenomenon, which may prove very misleading, is that when 
large quantity of sewage-polluted water is introduced into fermentation tubes othe 
forms of bacteria, such as some of the anaerobic bacteria, are present. These ovei 
grow the colon forms, leading to an apparently negative result, and thus completel; 
obscuring the true interpretation. I have frequently encountered this difficulty ii 
dealing with highly polluted waters in using quantities as large as 1 c. c. It is my 
opinion that if the colon determination be carried out properly, with due regard to 
the difficulties here mentioned, the colon bacillus would be found to be present in 
every cubic centimeter of the water in the drainage canal. Indeed, my examina¬ 
tions have shown no fewer than several hundred colon bacteria per cubic centimeter 
in the water of the drainage canal, and generally several thousands, while in the 
water of the Mississippi River which is pumped into the settling basins at St. Louis 
and in the tap water drawn from the tap in St. Louis the number of colon bacteria 
never approximate anything like these figures. 

For these reasons I am compelled to assume that the statements to which you refer 
are based on defective analytical methods and do not indicate that the actual num¬ 
ber of colon bacilli in the water of the drainage canal and in the St. Louis settling 
basins are at all comparable. (6012-6014.) 

The witness then took up the discussion of the work performed 
from October to December, 1901, and stated that three extra labo¬ 
ratories were equipped at the direction of the defendants, one at 
Peoria, on Illinois River; one at Grafton, at the mouth of the river, 
and one at St. Louis. The work carried on at these three laborato¬ 
ries consisted chiefly in plating daily samples of water for bacterio¬ 
logical examination and in making colon determinations. Data were 
also procured concerning the temperature of the water and air at 
times of collection, and all the laboratory men were instructed to 
select from the colonies of bacteria appearing on the plates all the 
different kinds that could be distinguished by the peculiarities of 
their growth. Those colonies thus picked from the plates were 
transferred to agar tubes and shipped to the witness at the bacterio¬ 
logical laboratory of the University of Chicago, where they were 
studied in detail. (6041-6042.) 

The sampling points were as follows: For the Peoria laboratory, 
at Averyville, above Peoria, and at Pekin, below Peoria, the precise 
points of collection being approximately those used during the inves¬ 
tigations of 1899 and 1900; for the laboratory at Grafton, from Illi¬ 
nois River above its confluence with the Mississippi and from the 
Mississippi above the mouth of the Illinois; for the laboratory at 
St. Louis, five daily samples, four along the cross section at Chain 

ibb 194—07-15 




226 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

of Rocks and the fifth from Missouri River at Fort Beliefontaine. 
The bacteriological work consisted of, first, the determination of the 
number of bacteria in the samples, as shown by the ordinary colony 
counts; second, the number of germs of the colon group, as shown 
by the dextrose fermentation tube test, and, third, the study of 
bacterial flora. The first two determinations were carried on in the 
respective branch laboratories and the third was performed at the 
laboratory of the University of Chicago. (6042-6043.) 

The methods used for the chemical estimation were those recom¬ 
mended by the committee on standard methods of the American Pub¬ 
lic Health Association. Several different decimal dilutions of the 
water were usually employed, and the dilution that was selected for 
record was the one showing from about 25 to 125 colonies per plate. 
(6043-6044.) 

The results of the various examinations are reported in detail on 
pages 6046-6080 of the record. A summary is given in Table 74. 


Table 74. —Average results of bacterial determinations on water from Illinois, Mississippi, 

and Missouri rivers, October to December, 1901. 


Sampling point. 

Number 
of de¬ 
termina¬ 
tions. 

Average 
number of 
bacteria 
per cubic 
centimeter. 

Illinois River at Averyville (above Peoria). 

69 

5,800 

90,000 

6,900 

1,300 

Illinois River at Pekin (below Peoria). 

50 

Illinois River at Grafton. 

73 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

73 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks: 

Illinois shore. 

54 

2,400 

Midstream. 

53 

5,200 
21,200 

Intake tower. 

52 

Missouri shore. 

53 

17,000 

21,000 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 

51 




Concerning the above results, the witness stated that the number of 
bacteria found at Averyville and at Grafton were not dissimilar. The 
averages were higher than the average for this period in Mississippi 
River, owing to the fact that the usual winter increase which occurs 
in river waters took place that year earlier in Illinois River than it 
did in Mississippi River. Up to the middle of December, 1901, the 
two waters were very similar as regards their bacterial content. 
Throughout the period studied the average number of bacteria, as 
shown by the colony count, for Missouri River at Fort Belief ontaine 
was several times as great as in the water from either Illinois River at 
its mouth or Mississippi River above Grafton. The number of bac¬ 
teria in Illinois River water at Pekin was greatly in excess of that 
found at any of the other collecting stations—a fact which, in the 
opinion of the witness, naturally follows the entrance of sewage and 
refuse into the river at Peoria, just above this point. (6081.) 


















TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


227 


The witness then presented a table showing the comparative num¬ 
ber of bacteria in samples from Mississippi River taken along the 
cross section at Chain of Rocks and from Missouri River at Fort 
Bellefontaine. This table appears on pages 6082-6083 of the record. 
The witness said that the figures show that during the period covered 
by the investigation, the number of bacteria in the water of Missis¬ 
sippi River along the cross section was much lower on the Illinois 
shore than on the Missouri shore, and further that the water at the 
intake tower partook of the character of the waters of Missouri River 
and of Mississippi River on the Missouri shore. In other-words, dur¬ 
ing these three months of 1901 little, if any, water from Illinois River 
entered the intake tower of the St. Louis waterworks, and it was also 
evident from the bacterial count that if any of the water from the 
Illinois shore did pass into the intake it must have improved the con¬ 
dition of the water, so far as reducing the number of bacteria per 
cubic centimeter was concerned. (6084.) 

The witness then introduced into evidence three series of photo¬ 
graphs of bacterial plates, showing the number of bacteria in samples 
taken from Mississippi River at four points in the Chain of Rocks sec¬ 
tion—Illinois shore, mid-channel, intake tower, and Missouri shore— 
and from Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. The first series rep¬ 
resented plate samples taken October 28; the second, November 20, 
and the third, December 13. The plates were all agar platings, and 
the photographs represented the number of colonies developing in 0.1 
c. c. of the water. The number of colonies visible on each plate from 
each sampling point agreed with the statements made by the witness 
concerning the relative appearance of bacteria and the proportions 
shown in Table 74. (6084—6089.) 

The witness then discussed the tests for Bacillus coli communis 
made during this period, stating that he considered that the relative 
abundance of this organism afforded the most satisfactory test of the 
sanitary quality of the water, and citing various authorities in sub¬ 
stantiation of his opinion. 

The detailed report of these tests appears on pages 6097-6116 of the 
record. A summary of the results appears in Tables 75 and 76. 
(6118-6120.) 


228 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 75. — Presence of bacteria of the colon group in samples from designated jjoints, 

October to December, 1901. 


Sampling point. 

0.0001 
c. c. 

0.001 
c. c. 

0.01 c.c. 

0.1 c. c. 

1 c. c. 

2 c. c. 

5 c. c. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Number of days 

water examined. 

Number of days 

B. coli found. 

Illinois River at Avervvillc 



3 

0 

49 

3 

60 

38 

41 

34 





Illinois River at Pekin 

17 

4 

44 

14 

44 

40 

17 

17 







Illinois River at Grafton. 



52 

4 

04 

6 

64 

12 

53 

19 

13 

5 

16 

8 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 



52 

0 

64 

6 

62 

25 

54 

25 

12 

4 

16 

11 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks: 















Illinois shore. 



25 

0 

41 

3 

41 

8 

42 

25 



7 

5 

Midstream. 



27 

0 

41 

4 

41 

16 

42 

35 



7 

6 

Intake tower. 



27 

0 

43 

•11 

42 

30 

43 

36 

6 

6 

5 

5 

Missouri shore. 



27 

1 

41 

8 

41 

24 

41 

36 



4 

4 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine. 


# 

32 

l 

44 

13 

44 

31 

43 

34 



8 

7 


Table 76. — Number and percentage of results showing presence of bacteria of the colon 
group in samples from designated points, October to December, 1901. 


Sampling point. 

0.0001 c. 

c. 

0.001 c. 

c. 

0.01 c. c. 

0.1 c. 

c. 

Num ber of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Number of positive 
results. 

Percentage of posi¬ 
tive results. 

Number of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Number of positive 
results. 

Percentage of posi¬ 
tive results. 

Number of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Number of positive 
results. 

Percentage of posi¬ 
tive results. 

Number of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Number of positive 
results. 

Percentage of posi¬ 

tive results. 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

25 

7 

28 

3 

0 

0 

72 

4 

6 

114 

49 

43 

Illinois River at Pekin. 




75 

16 

21 

77 

60 

78 

17 

17 

100 

Illinois River at Grafton. 




72 

5 

7 

117 

6 

5 

125 

16 

13 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 




69 

0 

0 

115 

6 

i 

o 

125 

29 

24 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks: 












Illinois shore. 




25 

0 

0 

66 

3 

5 

80 

8 

10 

Midstream. 




27 

0 

0 

68 

4 

6 

82 

18 

22 

Intake tower. 




27 

0 

0 

71 

14 

20 

84 

48 


Missouri shore. 




27 

1 

4 

'68 

9 

13 

81 

33 

41 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine.. 




34 

l 

3 

84 

16 

19 

95 

48 

50 


Sampling point. 

1 c. c. 

2 c. c. 

5 c. c. 

Number of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Numlxw of positive 
results. 

j 

Percentage of posi¬ 
tive results. 

Number of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Number of positive 
results. 

Percentage of posi¬ 
tive results. 

Number of determi¬ 
nations made. 

Number of positive 
results. 

Percentage of posi¬ 
tive results. 

Illinois River at Averyville. 

54 

39 

72 







Illinois River at Grafton. 

71 

21 

30 

15 

5 

33 

17 

8 

47 

Mississippi River at Grafton. 

74 

28 

38 

12 

4 

33 

16 

11 

67 

Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks: 










Illinois shore.•. 

42 

25 

60 




7 

5 

71 

Midstream. 

43 

36 

81 

6 

6 

100 

7 

6 

86 

Intake tower. 

43 

36 

84 




5 

5 

100 

Missouri shore. 

42 

37 

88 



4 

4 

100 

Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine.. 

44 

35 

79 




8 

7 

88 












































































































































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


229 


In discussing the above results the witness stated that the fact that 
the colon bacillus was found to he present in but 43 per cent of the 
0.1 c. c. samples from Illinois River at Avervville, while it was 
present in 100 per cent of the 0.1 c. c. samples from the same river at 
Pekin and in only 13 per cent of the 0.1 c. c. samples from Illinois River 
at Grafton, shows not only the extreme delicacy of the test for sew¬ 
age pollution, but also a very considerable improvement in the sani- 
tary quality of water between Pekin and Grafton. A comparison of 
the water of Mississippi River above Grafton with that of Illinois 
River above the same point indicates that the colon bacillus was 
present in 5 per cent of the 0.01 c. c. samples of water from these two 
places. Of the samples from the same points containing 0.1 c. c. of 
water, 24 per cent of those from Mississippi River and only 13 per 
cent of those from Illinois River yielded positive results, and a simi¬ 
lar difference was noted in the 1 c. c. samples, all of which showed, in 
the opinion of the witness, that the water of Mississippi River above 
Grafton during the period of examination was, if anything, less whole¬ 
some than that of Illinois River above Grafton. With reference to 
the results found in waters from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks 
and Missouri River at Fort Bellefontaine*, the witness stated that the 
water from Missouri River during this period was distinctly more 
dangerous and unwholesome than that of either the Illinois or the 
Mississippi at Grafton, (6121-6123.) 

The witness then introduced photographs of fermentation tubes, 
showing the results of inoculations with quantities of water varying 
from 0.001 to 1 c. c., taken from the designated sampling stations. 
The illustrations show that the colon bacillus was not so abundant in 
the water of Mississippi River near the Illinois shore as it was at the 
intake tower of the St. Louis waterworks. 

From all the foregoing tables and illustrations the witness con¬ 
cluded that the effect of any mixture of Illinois River water with 
Missouri River water at the intake tower would tend to diminish the 
colon content of the water at such point, thereby rendering it less 
dangerous for human use. (6132.) 

The attention of the witness was then called to that part of the 
testimony of Allen Hazen in which he stated that the mixing of water 
from Illinois and Mississippi rivers by the time it reaches the mouth 
of the Missouri River is more complete at low water than at high 
water, to which the witness replied that the total number of bacteria 
in the water at the intake tower and near the Missouri shore at Chain 
of Rocks, as well as the number of colon bacteria in the water at these 
two points, shows conclusively that during the period of low water 
the water collected at these two stations was almost wholly, if not 
altogether. Missouri River water and was mixed little, if any, with that 


230 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


of the Illinois. If it be true, therefore, that the mixing is more com¬ 
plete at low water than at high water, it would certainly follow that 
the amount of Illinois River water present in the Mississippi at these 
two points at high-water stages must be exceedingly small. (6132- 
6133.) 

The witness then discussed his work in the identification of bac¬ 
teria of various species in the samples collected during the investiga¬ 
tion of 1901. The organisms studied were isolated from four differ¬ 
ent kinds of culture media—(1) from forty-eight-hour gelatine plates 
incubated at 20° C.; (2) from forty-eiglit-hour dextrose-broth fer¬ 
mentation tubes incubated at 37°; (3) from litmus lactose agar plates 
at 35° after passing through carbol broth at 37°; (4) from neutral red 
broth at 37°. In this way 543 cultures were isolated and classified. 
The results are contained in Table 77. (6134.) 


Table 77 .—Species of bacteria isolated by E. O. Jordan, 1901. 



Illinois River. 

Mississippi River. 

Missouri River 
at Fort Belle- 
fontaine. 

Total. 

Species. 

• 

Avery ville. 

Pekin. 

Grafton. 

ri 

o 

N-H 

03 

Missouri 

shore. 

o 

nr 

St. Louis £. 

intake. 3 

o 

i Rock 

o 

c 

G 

s 

-C 

o 

CZ) 

Illinois 

snore. 

Bacillus coli communis. 

3 

22 

1 

7 

4 

2 

1 

3 

3 

46 

B. lactis aerogenes. 

7 

8 

1 

5 


3 

1 

1 

1 

27 

B. coli communis and B. lactis aeroge- 











nes. 

6 

12 

1 


4 

1 


3 

2 

29 

Proteus. 

13 

4 

5 

7 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

40 

B. cloacae. 

5 

1 

5 

1 

2 

4 

1 

■2 


21 

B. enteritidis. 

3 

2 



1 





6 

B. fluorescens liquefaciens. 

8 

3 


9 

1 


2 

3 


33 

B. fluorescens nonliquefaciens. 

7 

1 

2 

2 

4 

1 

5 

1 

2 

25 

B. subtilis. 

6 

2 

12 

4 

4 

6 

4 

2 

6 

40 

B. gelat.-liquef., milkacia. 

19 

ii 

10 

15 

4 

6 


1 

8 

74 

B. gelat.-liquef., milk alkaline 


10 

7 

2 

2 

1 


1 


30 

B. nongelat.-liquef., milk acid. 

6 

8 

2 

. 

3 

2 

6 

4 

1 

32 

B. nongelat.-liquef., milk alkaline .. 

17 

1 

1 


2 _ 

1 

4 

2 

1 

29 

B. nongelat.-liquef., milk amphoteric .. 

17 

6 ' 

2 

" T 


1 


1 

2 

30 

Chromogenic bacteria a . 

7 

3 

i 

i 

2 

1 

1 

1 


19 

Chromogenic staphylococci. 

2 

2 

5 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 


14 

Nonchromogenic staphylococci. 

4 

17 

3 

2 

2 


4 

1 

2 

35 

Sarcinae... 

2 



1 






3 

Streptococci. 


2 


. 

2 




4 








• 




139 

115 

65 

58 

40 

33 

32 

29 

30 

543 


a Two cultures of the red chromogenic group are without data as to place or mode of isolation. 


Referring to the above results, the witness stated that the detailed 
study shows that the forms regarded by bacteriologists as character¬ 
istic of sewage pollution are found more abundantly in the water of 
Illinois River at Pekin than elsewhere. The streptococcus forms, 
which are believed to be especially characteristic of recent sewage 
pollution, were found in only four cases, namely, two in Illinois River 
at Pekin and two in Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks, near the 
Missouri shore. (6135.) 

In response to a question concerning the necessity for examination 
of samples collected hourly or even daily, the witness cited several 








































































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN 0. JORDAN. 


231 


standard investigations, such as those carried on by George W. Fuller 
at Aew Orleans, Louisville, and Cincinnati, and by Allen Hazen at 
Pittsburg, together with certain others in European countries. He 
stated that in his opinion the usual practice is based on the belief 
that an adequate opinion as to the character of the water can be 
formed by examinations made at intervals of one week, provided the 
total period of investigation extends over a sufficient length of time. 
In the present investigation the weekly, daily, and hourly determi¬ 
nations made by the witness, together with those made concurrentlv 
by Professors Palmer, Long, Zeit, Gehrmann, and Burrill, were 
unquestionably sufficient to permit a satisfactory conclusion to be 
drawn as to the character of the water, and they constituted the most 
extensive study of river water, in connection with the subject of 
self-purification of streams, ever made anywhere in the world. 
(6135-6137.) 

Taking into consideration all the analytical data obtained through¬ 
out the seventeen months covered by the investigations, the witness 
concluded that one of the most remarkable facts brought out is the 
entire concurrence of the results derived from the chemical and the 
various bacteriological determinations. The amount and rate of 
nitrification in the water of Illinois River at various points along its 
course are in line with what the experience of water analysts has 
shown to accompany real purification. On the bacteriological side 
the evidence is wholly confirmatory, as under certain conditions Illi¬ 
nois River becomes nearly free from the great mass of sewage bacteria 
with which it is laden at Lockport in ,so short a distance as 24 miles, 
as shown by the examinations made at Morris and Ottawa. 
(6138-6140.) 

Concerning the occurrence of Bacillus prodigiosus in the rivers of 
the country, the witness stated that on November 6, 1899, he isolated 
from the water of Illinois River collected at Morris an organism 
which resembled in all specific characteristics the standard B. pro- 
digiosus, and verified his diagnosis by comparing its culture charac¬ 
teristics with those of two other strains obtained from the University 
of Michigan and Yale University. In addition to these, he isolated 
from the water of Mississippi River near the Missouri shore at Chain 
of Rocks on November 16, 1901, an organism that in many respects 
was typical of B. prodigiosus and might have been mistaken for it, 
but was markedly different in other characteristics, inasmuch as it 
did not produce gas in dextrose broth nor liquefy blood serum nor 
curdle milk—three very important respects in which it differed from 
the true B. prodigiosus type. Other germs were isolated on other 
occasions from Illinois and Mississippi rivers, which also bore certain 
resemblances to B. prodigiosus, but which on investigation were found 
not to be the true form. (6143-6144.) 


232 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


In response to the hypothetical questions hereinbefore outlined 
concerning the experiment of Doctor R avoid in depositing 107 barrels 
of B. prodigiosus culture in the Chicago Drainage Canal, the witness 
stated that this experiment gave a certain amount of information on 
the probable longevity of the typhoid bacillus under the conditions as 
stated. It constituted a demonstration of the power of self-purification 
in streams, from the fact that along the upper collecting stations 
maintained by the city of St. Louis in Illinois River this organism 
was not discovered, although according to the testimony very frequent 
examinations were made. The findings of a few individual bacteria 
in Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks were not positive, inasmuch as 
the identification did not, from the records, appear to be altogether 
complete. On the assumption, however, that the identification was 
correct, the relatively insignificant number found indicated that the 
bacterium does not live long in the river water, and that the typhoid 
bacillus, which is beyond doubt a more highly specialized parasitic 
form, would not survive as long as the B. prodigiosus. In other 
words, since B. prodigiosus dies off so speedily in such large numbers, 
the typhoid bacillus would be less likely to survive exposure to these 
same conditions. (6148-6151.) 

Referring to established instances where the typhoid bacillus has 
been detected in river water, the witness stated that although the evi¬ 
dence which connects polluted water with outbreaks of typhoid fever 
is entirely convincing both in character and mass there have been rela¬ 
tively few instances in which bacteriologists have succeeded in isolat¬ 
ing a specific typhoid bacillus from suspected waters. Accounts of 
actual identification are of doubtful value, especially since more 
recently organisms that were similar to but by no means identical 
with the true typhoid bacillus have been discovered in water. After 
citing accounts of several cases of alleged identification of the typhoid 
bacillus in foreign countries and remarking on the insufficiency of the 
evidence the witness stated that the meagerness of those found, 
despite the thousands of examinations made by skilled bacteriologists 
in ever}" part of the world, is in his opinion explained chiefly by the 
relatively short duration of the life of the bacillus in water. The 
period elapsing between the moment of infection and the beginning 
of the bacterial investigation is usually at least two or three weeks, 
owing chiefly to the time occupied by the incubation of the disease 
and perhaps tardy recognition of it. Some time is also consumed in 
the preliminary work necessary in carrying on a competent investiga¬ 
tion. The history of most outbreaks of typhoid fever shows that the 
bacillus had disappeared from the water by the time a search was 
inaugurated, and for this reason a negative finding is the usual result 
of such an examination. (6156-6159.) 


TESTIMONY OF EDWIN 0. JORDAN. 


233 

Concerning experiments made to determine the longevity of the 
typhoid bacillus in water, the witness stated that examinations made 
with the bacillus in sterilized water and kept in glass bottles showed, 
among other things, that the age of the culture influences the lon¬ 
gevity, freshly isolated stock exhibiting distinctly greater vitality 
than stock which had been under cultivation for some months. 
When introduced into sterilized Lake Michigan water, typhoid 
bacilli were alive under some circumstances up to ninety-three days, 
but did not multiply during this period. The colon bacillus, on the 
other hand, multiplies rapidly and has been kept alive in sterilized 
Lake Michigan water for two hundred and sixty-two days. There is 
no evidence to show that the typhoid bacillus multiplies in natural 
waters. On the contrary, there appears to be an overwhelming- 
evidence that the organisms once discharged from the human body 
undergo a constant diminution in number. Conditions in laboratory 
experiments for testing the longevity of this bacillus are usually much 
more favorable to its life than those which it meets in nature. The 
witness was fully of the opinion that the organisms will live longer in 
pure than in polluted waters, because of the fact that in polluted 
waters they have to compete with various saprophytic bacteria, 
while in unpolluted waters they are not injuriously affected by these 
microbes. From what lie knew of the chemical composition and bac¬ 
terial content of the waters of Illinois River at various points along its 
course it was his opinion that the life of the typhoid bacillus intro¬ 
duced into Illinois River at the upper end of the drainage canal would 
not be more than three or four days. (6159-6161.) 

The witness then testified concerning his familiarity with the 
physical conditions existing along the Illinois River basin, and stated 
that Desplaines River from Lockport to Morris has a rapid flow, but 
the lower part of Illinois River, especially from La Salle to Grafton, is 
very sluggish and consists of a series of pools, so that the body of 
water as a whole is almost entirely quiescent. If it were true that any 
of the infectious matter from Chicago persisted as far down even as 
Peoria, the conditions existing there and farther down the stream 
would be such as to bring about a further diminution in the amount 
of such substances. This state of semistagnation prevailing in Illinois 
River affords opportunity for the destruction of such infectious mat¬ 
ter as may be introduced into the river either directly or through the 
tributaries. (6161-6164.) 

While it is true that bacteria in a turbid water are sedimented more 
quickly than in a clear water, the turning into Illinois River of the 
clear water from Lake Michigan does not interfere with sedimenta¬ 
tion, because in that portion of Illinois River where most sedimenta¬ 
tion occurs the amount of suspended matter introduced into the 
water from the tributaries and entering the river directly is sufficient 


234 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


to effect the same degree of sedimentation that would occur if the 
present amount of dilution with water from Lake Michigan were 
absent. Therefore while the introduction of Lake Michigan water 
might probably interfere with sedimentation in the upper part of the 
river it would have no such effect in the stretch of the stream from 
La Salle to Grafton. (6165-6166.) 

Concerning the effect of dilution on the purification of streams, the 
witness stated that although dilution does not cause any actual 
destruction of infectious material it does diminish the danger of 
infection arising from the drinking of such water. If, for example, 
infectious material were introduced into water to such an extent that 
each tumblerful contained one typhoid bacillus and this water were 
diluted with nineteen times its bulk of pure and uninfected water it 
would then be true that out of one hundred tumblerfuls of this mix¬ 
ture only five tumblerfuls would contain typhoid bacilli instead of the 
whole one hundred, as was originally the case. In other words, the 
effect would be the same as if 95 per cent of the typhoid bacilli 
perished. In this way dilution unmistakably diminishes the danger 
from infection. Such dilution as is turned into Desplaines River 
from the drainage canal has, however, little effect on the infectious 
quality of the water in Illinois River at Grafton, because, in the opin¬ 
ion of the witness, the infectious bacteria in the Chicago sewage 
would have perished long before the mouth of Illinois River would be 
reached. (6167-6168.) 

The witness then said that Professor Sedgwick, in his testimony 
recorded on page 2207 of the record, made a misquotation from the 
report of the river commissioners of Great Britain published in 1874, 
giving their statement as “ there is no river in the United Kingdom 
long enough to purify itself from any sewage admitted to it, even at 
its source/’ whereas the statement in reality was, “It will be safe to 
infer * * * that there is no river in the LTnited Kingdom long 

enough to effect the destruction of sewage by oxidation.” The 
witness explained that there was a material difference in the two 
statements, because at the time the aforesaid report was published 
the knowledge of sanitarians regarding the quality of a water was 
based on chemical rather than on bacteriological data; practically 
nothing was known then concerning the elements in sewage that 
imparted to it its dangerous character. It had been determined empi¬ 
rically that a certain relation exists between the oxidation of sewage and 
the loss of its dangerous qualities, but it was not known what this rela¬ 
tion was nor on what it depended. The modern conception of the puri¬ 
fication of a sewage-polluted stream is based on the disappearance 
and destruction of disease-producing bacteria. There is, therefore, a 
wide difference between stating that the purification of a stream is 
effected within a certain distance and that the destruction of sewage 

o 


l 


TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


235 

by oxidation is effected within a certain distance. It does not follow 
that because complete destruction by oxidation of the organic matter 
in a polluted water does not occur within a specified distance, the real 
purification, namely, the destruction of dangerous bacteria, may not 
be accomplished within that distance. The process of nitrification 
or oxidation and the processes leading to the disappearance of dan¬ 
gerous bacteria do not always run a strictly parallel course, either in 
sewage tanks or polluted rivers. (6172-6174.) 

The witness then took up the discussion of an elaborate series of 
experiments made to determine the longevity of the typhoid bacillus 
under natural conditions in the water of the drainage canal and of 
Illinois River. The experiments were conducted with the coopera¬ 
tion of Professor Russell, of the University of Wisconsin, and Profes¬ 
sor Zeit, of the Northwestern Medical School. The serious and mis¬ 
leading effect on the longevity of the typhoid bacillus produced by 
laboratory conditions had impressed itself upon the witness, and with 
a view to removing this objection, receptacles were planned for 
imprisoning the bacilli in the water of the drainage canal under normal 
conditions of life and temperature. 

Five different bodies of water were selected for these experiments, 
namely, Lake Michigan, Chicago River, the drainage canal at Lock- 
port and at Robey street, and Illinois River at Averyville. Professor 
Zeit carried on the experiments with Lake Michigan and Chicago 
River water, Professor Russell undertook those with the water of 
Illinois River at Averyville, and the witness conducted those on the 
drainage canal. Parchment sacks were employed instead of glass 
tubes. These sacks had a capacity of about 800 c. c., and when sus¬ 
pended in the water by floats permitted the passage of certain sub¬ 
stances in solution, but did not allow the bacteria to pass through 
their walls. The conditions to which the typhoid bacilli introduced 
into the sewage in these sacks were subjected are almost precisely 
those prevailing in nature, inasmuch as the bacteria inside and out¬ 
side of the sacks can not pass through the walls, and yet they are sub¬ 
jected to the action of the toxic products and the saprophytic microbes 
in the sewage. The sacks were fastened to the points of glass tubes 
about 6 inches in length and were sealed with a mixture of tallow and 
rosin. They were then weighted so as to swing freely in the water 
when filled with sewage and suspended in a framework covered with a 
wire screen that permitted free circulation of the outside water. This 
frame was made of fine strips of wood, and was 4 feet long and 3 feet wide 
by 34 feet deep. The bottom, top, and lower five-sixths of the sides and 
ends of this frame were covered with wire screen. The upper 6 
inches of the sides and ends were of 1-inch pine fencing. I he top 
opened with a hinge and was fastened in place by a hasp and pad¬ 
lock. It was balanced in such a way that it floated with the water 


236 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

level up to the height of the lower margin of the upper solid portion 
of the body. The part above the water \*^is thus of boards and served 
to break the effect of the waves over the sacks. The witness was con¬ 
fident that the water within the frames differed in no essential way 
from that in the open channel. The sacks were tested for cracks or 
defects before they were taken from the labratory and again when 
they were filled in the field. To the lower end of each sack a small 
weight was attached, which served to keep it in an upright position in 
the water. A cord was also fastened to the lower end, by means of 
which the sack was brought to the surface of the water and the con¬ 
tents agitated at the time of taking samples. In carrying forward 
these experiments three cultures were employed, designated as x, y, and 
2 , all taken from patients suffering from the disease. They were 
therefore in an active and virulent condition. Into the sacks was 
introduced a quantity of sewage, together with a strong culture of the 
typhoid bacilli. Sixteen such sacks were placed in the Chicago drain¬ 
age canal at Eobey street and 12 at Lockport. Other sacks which were 
not inoculated with typhoid bacilli but contained samples of raw 
sewage taken from the canal at the respective points were used for 
parallel experiments. Sauiples of water from these control sacks were 
placed at frequent intervals and examined as to their bacteriological 
content. After the culture sacks were inoculated and set in place 
samples were collected from them in sterilized glass bottles, with all 
proper aseptic precaution, and accurately measured quantities were 
mingled with sufficient nutrient media of various kinds, and when the 
growth had sufficiently developed were examined for the identifica¬ 
tion of the typhoid bacillus. The results for the two stations in the 
drainage canal are included in Table 78. The full discussion of these 
important experiments occupies pages 6180-6238 of the record. 

Table 78.— Results of experiments until Bacillus typhosus infection in Chicago drainage 

canal, 1903. 


Bacteria per cubic centimeter (initial 
count). 


Station. 

Date. 

Sewage 

bacteria. 

Lockport. 

October 5-14. 

110,000 
110. (XX) 
110.000 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

October 14-27. 

Do. 

.do. 


Do. 

October 17-27. 


Robey street. 

October 9-23.. 

390,000 
390.000 
390.000 
390.000 
113, (XX) 
113, (XX) 
240,000 
240,000 
240,000 
240.000 

Do. 

_do 9-23 ... 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

October 18-23... 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

OctoLr r 25-Noveinber 4 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

.do. 

Do. 

.do. 




Colon 

bacilli. 

Strep¬ 
tococci . 

4,000-0.000 

1.000 

4.000-0,000 

1.000 

4,000-0.000 

1.000 

1,000 

2,000 

1.000 

2.(XX) 

1,000 

2,000 

4,000-0.000 

2,000 

4,000-0.000 

2,000 

4,0C0-6. (XX) 

2,000 

4,000-0.000 

2.000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

2,000 

1,000 

1,000 

1,000 


1,000 


1,000 



B. typho¬ 
sus infec¬ 
tion. 


12,000 
000 
ISO 
30,000 
1,500 
300,000 
11,500 
070 
IS. 000 
900 


25,000 
16,800 
285.000 
285.000 
857, (XX) 
857,000 























































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 237 


Table 78. Results of experiments with Bacillus typhosus infection in Chicago drainage 

canal , 1903 —Continued. 



From the results of the experiments above recorded and those con¬ 
ducted by Professors Russell and Zeit, the witness submitted the fol¬ 
lowing conclusions: Experiments under conditions closely simulating 
those in nature indicate that the typhoid bacillus introduced into 
unsterilized Lake Michigan water does not survive for a period longer 
than four days after such introduction. It is probable that specially 
resistant individual cells may survive longer, but in any case the maxi¬ 
mum period would be eight to ten days. The experiments in the 
drainage canal indicate that the bacillus Was not isolated after two 
days, except in one anomalous case, in which three typhoid bacilli 
were isolated on the tenth day from a single plate in a single sack. 
The reasonable explanation for this, according to the witness, was 
that at times when the contents of the sack were heavily infected, 
during the process of tilting and agitation some particles in the sewage 
to which typhoid bacteria were adhering were deposited and became 
dried upon the walls of the sack above the water line and were subse¬ 
quently washed off and dropped into the water of the sack. Taking 
into consideration all the experiments made in the drainage canal, 
the witness was of the opinion that the typhoid bacilli could not live 
for a period longer than four days after infection. The experiments 
in Illinois River led him to believe that they would not live in that 
stream under natural conditions for a period longer than five or 
six days. Summing up, the witness stated that specific infection of 
typhoid fever discharged into the drainage canal might live as long 
as three or four days after leaving the body of the pollution, but that 
at any rate it would perish long before Averyville was reached. 
(6238-6241.) 

























































































288 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

The witness then cited experiments made by Dr. William G. Savage, 
of University College, Cardiff, Wales, in which it was shown that the 
colon bacillus lives for some time in soils but disappears as time goes 
on, the ordinary soil organisms invading the material aiid taking the 
place of the colon bacillus. It is more resistant than the typhoid 
bacillus, and therefore it is a fair assumption that the latter would 
rapidly die out in soils. (6241.) 

The witness stated that the experiments above outlined show that 
the colon bacillus and sewage streptococci die out rapidly in polluted 
streams, and attributed the death of the typhoid bacillus in such 
water to the poisonous action of the products of other microbes, and 
this is the reason why the germ will not live as long in polluted as in 
pure water. He then expressed the opinion that the life of the typhoid 
bacillus would not continue any longer in the sediment of a polluted 
stream than in the water of that stream, because in the sediments 
the germs are in very much the same surroundings that they would 
be in the water, except that it is fair to assume that the organic matter 
is more abundant on the bed of the stream in the sediments. This 
condition would encourage the growth of saprophytic bacteria, and 
therefore the toxic products fatal to the typhoid germ would be in 
more concentrated form. There is a difference in the conditions that 
prevail in moist soil and those in the sediment of a running stream. 
In the former the bacilli are not exposed to the action of toxic products 
for the reason that such products can not act on the bacillus through 
the intervening air space or through the interstices of the soil. A 
continuous layer of fluid is needed for the diffusion of these toxic 
products, and unless the typhoid bacilli are in contact with them 
the conditions in ordinary damp soil are different from those prevail¬ 
ing in the sediment at the bottom of a river. Therefore the time that 
the typhoid bacilli will live in moist soil furnishes no criterion for its 
longevity in the sediment of a running stream. (6242-6244.) 

Referring to the case in which the presence of typhoid germs was 
demonstrated in the mud of Lake Geneva, cited in the testimony of 
George W. Fuller, the witness stated that considerable doubt had been 
thrown on the work of the observer because his methods of identifica¬ 
tion were not satisfactory. lie further said that he knew of no 
experiments or observations which demonstrate that this germ can 
live in the sediment of a running stream for a period up to a year, as 
stated by Mr. Fuller. (6246-6248.) 

With reference to the statement made in the testimony of Professor 
Sedgwick that typhoid fever sometimes prevails in a city drawing its 
supply of water from a reservoir of a storage capacity equal to thirty 
days’ consumption, the witness stated that it is not true that 
in such cases all the water pumped into this reservoir would remain 
there for a period of thirty days. In point of fact, some of it might 


TESTIMONY OF EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


239 

be drawn from the reservoir within a very short time after its entrance 
theiein. It does not follow that because a reservoir or settling basin 
holds a thirty days supply all the typhoid bacilli introduced therein 
remain for thirty days. ( 6252 .) 

The witness laid special stress on the importance of the interpreta¬ 
tion of vital statistics. It is not a matter of indifference how the 
figures so collected are viewed by statisticians. Statistical pitfalls 
are numerous, and certain fallacies of interpretation exist, the intro¬ 
duction of which may vitiate any conclusion drawn from figures that 
are in themselves exact. For example, it is commonly assumed that 
the death rate of a city is a correct measure of its healthfulness. The 
death rate among individuals of different ages and nationalities varies 
so much that a statement of deaths without regard to age, sex, or 
distribution of racial characteristics does not afford any helpful infor¬ 
mation and is frequently misleading. A community having a large 
percentage of infants or of aged persons would have a larger number 
of deaths per thousand than a community having a larger proportion 
of individuals of more resistant age; yet the two places may be equally 
healthful. It is well known, too, that certain races of mankind mani¬ 
fest weakness or lack of resistance to various diseases. For example, 
persons of Irish parentage are much more liable to consumption and 
pneumonia than Russian and Polish Jews. Therefore in making a 
statement of death rates from these two diseases in any city account 
should be taken of the proportion of each of these races involved in 
the estimate. ( 6260 - 6261 .) 

The method of expression of the fatality rate of any particular 
disease according to the mortality-percentage method described in the 
testimony of Messrs. Sedgwick and Fuller frequently fails, in the 
opinion of the witness, to give correct information as to the progress 
of the disease. Quoting from Newsholme, Vital Statistics, page 186 , 
he gave the following example: 

Suppose a town of 100,000 with 2,000 annual deaths, of which 500 are caused by 
phthisis. Here the general death rate is 20 per 1,000; the death rate from phthisis is 
5 per 100 living, and the deaths from phthisis form one-fourth of the total deaths. In 
another town having the same population the total deaths are 4,000, and therefore the 
death rate 40 per 1,000 inhabitants; the deaths from phthisis are 1,000, and therefore 
the death rate from phthisis is 10 per 1,000; but the proportion of the phthisical to the 
total mortality is one-fourth, as before. In the second town, however, there is by 
the latter test apparently no worse condition, so far as phthisis is concerned, than in 
the first, though matters are really twice as bad. (6261-6262.) 

With reference to the value of chemical and bacterial data in water 
examination, the witness was of the opinion that such analyses furnish 
important evidence, and that while they often supplement and con¬ 
firm the results of observations they also at times reveal conditions 
that mere ocular inspection would fail to bring to light. It is some¬ 
times true that chemical and bacteriological data are the only data 


240 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


obtainable. In the study of the self-purification of streams such 
analyses afford a material aid in determining the rate and extent of 
the process of purification and make it possible to trace the successive 
changes that take place in the amount and condition of the organic 
matter. (6266-6267.) 

Assuming that the reports of the St. Louis board of health show an 
apparent increase in typhoid fever during the years 1900 to 1903, 
inclusive, the witness stated that he did not regard it as a justifiable 
conclusion that the apparent increase was due to any infectious matter 
passing into the sewers of Chicago and thence to the St. Louis intake 
by way of Illinois and Mississippi rivers. An increase in the infection 
of Mississippi River water from points near at hand would seem to 
afford a more satisfactory explanation. The rural population on the 
watershed is an important factor to be considered, because typhoid 
fever is far more prevalent in rural than in urban districts. (6270- 
6275.) 

The witness then compared the records of typhoid fever by months 
from 1890 to 1903, inclusive, in Chicago and St. Louis, and stated 
that he was unable to discover any relation between the monthly 
death rates in the two cities. The month showing the largest num¬ 
ber of deaths in Chicago precedes the maximum in St. Louis by eleven 
months in 1892, by eight months in 1903, by six months in 1891, by 
live months in 1896 and 1898, by three months in 1899, and by two 
months in 1902. The Chicago maximum coincides with the St. Louis 
maximum in five years—namely, 1893, 1895, 1896, 1897, and 1900. 
The minimum monthly typhoid fever in Chicago precedes the mini¬ 
mum in St. Louis in five years—namely, 1891, 1893, 1898, 1900, and 
1902, while the Chicago minimum coincides with the St. Louis mini¬ 
mum in 1890 and 1892 and follows it in 1894, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1901, 
and 1903. 

The witness stated that he would expect in general that if the 
typhoid-fever conditions in St. Louis were dependent on those in Chi¬ 
cago, a large number of deaths from typhoid fever in the latter city 
would be followed within three or four months by an increase in the 
number in the former. No such relation appears, and therefore in 
his judgment the typhoid conditions in St. Louis are unaffected by 
those in Chicago. (6279-6281.) 

The witness then presented some comparisons of the readings of 
gage heights in Illinois River at Kampsville and the death rate from 
typhoid fever in St. Louis, the object being to show that the conten¬ 
tions of the plaintiff concerning the effects of floods in Illinois River in 
raising the typhoid rate in St. Louis were not true. As a result of 
these comparisons the witness stated that in 1899 high water occurred 
at Kampsville in March and low water in September, while the maxi¬ 
mum typhoid death rate in St. Louis occurred in November and the 
minimum in May. Again, in 1900 the high-water period was in 


TESTIMONY OE EDWIN O. JORDAN. 


241 


March and the low-water period in January, while the maximum 
typhoid fever occurred in St. Louis in October and the minimum in 
April and May. In 1901 high water occurred in April and the maxi¬ 
mum typhoid fever rate in October, while low water occurred in Octo¬ 
ber and the minimum typhoid in April. In 1902 high water occurred 
in July and low water in January, while the maximum typhoid 
occurred in October and the minimum in June. During July to 
November, inclusive, 1902, Illinois River averaged twice as high as 
during the same period in 1901, yet the typhoid-fever rate in St. 
Louis was almost exactly the same in the two years. From a detailed 
comparison of the entire record the witness stated that he was unable 
to discover any connection between the stages of water at Kamps- 
ville and the rate of typhoid at St. Louis, and he therefore concluded 
that the contention that high water in Illinois River washed down the 
infected matter from Chicago more quickly and resulted in high 
typhoid in St. Louis was unfounded. (6282-6284.) 

The witness then discussed the characteristics of typhoid and 
malarial fevers at some length and stated that the diseases ordinarily 
termed intermittent fever, remittent fever, typho-malarial fever, con¬ 
gestive and continuous fevers are not distinct types, but that most of 
the infections designated by these terms are true typhoid or malaria, 
and in his opinion the deaths so classed should be transferred bodily 
to the column of deaths from typhoid fever, since malaria in temperate 
countries is rarely fatal. He further stated that he found in the 
records of the health department of St. Louis a very considerable num¬ 
ber of deaths under these headings and believed that they were all 
genuine typhoid, and in his opinion no city in the United States has so 
large a death rate from genuine malaria as would be indicated by the 
official records of St. Louis. Fie then summed up the statistics for 
typhoid fever and the poorly defined disorders above noted, as shown 
in Table 79. (6287-6294.) " 


Table 79 .—Deaths from typhoid and so-called malarial fevers in St. Louis, 1895-1003, 

inclusive. 


Month. 

1895. 

1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

A. 

B. 

January. 

12 

10 

4 

13 

7 

5 

4 

6 

10 

4 

19 

6 

8 

5 

14 

5 

15 

4 

February. 

3 

I 

4 

10 

9 

5 

C 

10 

7 

8 

5 

3 

14 

0 

1G 

6 

15 

1 

March. 

3 

8 

3 

G 

7 

11 

7 

9 

4 

G 

16 

9 

11 

4 

11 

9 

20 

4 

April. 

7 

7 

4 

11 

4 

13 

G 

8 

5 

6 

4 

7 

4 

7 

14 

3 

17 

4 

May. 

G 

9 

9 

10 

7 

8 

2 

8 

2 

12 

4 

7 

8 

7 

11 

8 

15 

8 

June. 

G 

14 

G 

7 

9 

18 

7 

10 

5 

8 

8 

12 

16 

9 

7 

4 

18 

8 

July. 

9 

8 

13 

23 

10 

17 

9 

13 

9 

18 

15 

9 

13 

15 

14 

12 

27 

10 

August. 

17 

15 

29 

34 

18 

20 

(9) 

(14) 

6 

30 

20 

20 

31 

5 

26 

7 

37 

10 

September. 

9 

32 

13 

27 

17 

31 

14 

18 

16 

28 

13 

20 

24 

9 

21 

16 

42 

17 

October. 

15 

24 

9 

20 

17 

24 

12 

12 

15 

16 

30 

9 

32 

11 

32 

17 

29 

17 

November... 

13 

8 

7 

14 

15 

13 

7 

13 

32 

8 

15 

3 

27 

5 

31 

9 

24 

3 

December. 

7 

13 

5 

2 

5 

5 

12 

13 

20 

4 

19 

7 

20 

3 

25 

6 

31 

5 


A. Typhoid fever. 

B. Remittent, intermittent, typho-malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers. 


irr 194—07-16 


































































242 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

The witness stated that the above table shows a close parallel 
between the number of deaths reported from the two causes. During 
the period July to October the number of deaths reported from both 
causes is high, while during April and May the number was low. 
During the latter part of the period an interesting change is noted. 
For the first five years the number of deaths under the heading B was 
greater than under A, but beginning with 1901 the reverse is true, 
showing that during the last four years there had been a transfer from 
column B to column A, the effect being to diminish the number of 
deaths from the so-called malarial fevers and increase the number 
from typhoid. The witness then presented Table 80, which is in part 
a summary of Table 79. (6294-6296.) 


Table 80. —Deaths from typhoid fever and reported deaths from remittent, intermittent, 
typho-malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers in St. Louis, 1890-1903. 


Year. 

Deaths 

from 

typhoid. 

Deaths 

from 

other 

fevers. 

Total. 

Year. 

Deaths 

from 

typhoid. 

Deaths 

from 

other 

fevers. 

Total. 

1890. 

140 

226 

366 

1897. 

125 

172 

297 

1891. 

165 

216 

381 

1898. 

95 

134 

229 

1892. 

441 

326 

767 

1899. 

131 

148 

279. 

1893. 

215 

284 

499 

1900. 

168 

112 

280 

1894. 

171 

179 

350 

1901. 

198 

80 

278 

1895. 

107 

155 

262 

1902. 

222 

102 

324 

1896. 

106 

177 

283 

1903. 

288 

91 

379 










The witness pointed out the fact that the above table shows that 
during the first ten years the number of deaths reported from typhoid 
fever w T as generally less than those from remittent fever, etc., but 
during the last four years the situation is reversed, and it is evident 
that some cause has been at work tending to produce a more accurate 
diagnosis on the part of the physicians. lie believed it reasonable 
to suppose that the letters issued by the health commissioner to the 
physicians in 1900 and 1901, calling attention to the opening of the 
drainage canal and the necessity for reporting typhoid cases in the 
city, had caused them to pay closer attention to diagnosis, which 
had resulted in the marked change in reporting deaths. Citing so- 
called malarial records of other cities, such as Chicago, Albany, and 
Baltimore, the witness stated that there was a general correspond¬ 
ence by months and years with what had been noticed in the St. 
Louis record, namely, that the proportion of deaths from malarial 
fevers has been lower during recent years than previously, while that 
from typhoid has been higher. In support of his contention that 
the deaths from so-called malarial diseases should be placed in the 
typhoid column, he cited the experience of Albany, where a sand 
filter was put into operation in September, 1899. During the ten 
years previous to this date 777 deaths were reported from typhoid 
fever, or an annual average of 86, and during the four years after the 







































TESTIMONY OF EDWIN 0. JOKDAN. 


243 


installation of the filter, the number of deaths amounted to 106, or 
an annual average of 26. An exactly similar decline was noticed in 
the number of deaths reported from malarial diseases. Prior to the 
opening of the filter, these amounted to 61, or an annual average of 
7, while during the four years since the filter was opened only 2 
deaths had been reported, or an average of one-half. In the opinion 
of the witness, the inference was plain that both the above reported 
causes of death had been affected by the opening of the fdter and 
only one conclusion could be drawn, namely, that the deaths reported 
as occurring by reason of malarial diseases were really genuine typhoid 
cases. Summing up all of the evidence, including that of the so- 
called malarial diseases, the witness stated that he was of the opinion 
that the average death rate from typhoid fever in St. Louis had been 
less during the four years from 1900 to the date of the testimony than 
previous thereto—excluding the year 1892, during which occurred 
the great epidemic—and that no portion of the typhoid fever mor¬ 
tality occurring in St. Louis since January, 1900, could be attributed 
either directly or indirectly to the effluents from the Chicago drainage 
canal. (6296-6309.) 

With reference to the statement of Professor Sedgwick that inas¬ 
much as typhoid germs coming from Chicago sewage are deposited 
in large quantities in the lakes and slack-water portions of Illinois 
River above Peoria, flood Conditions such as would scour these 
deposits from the bed of the stream would cause the water leaving 
Lake Peoria to contain at times more infectious and dangerous pollu¬ 
tion than is present in the diluted sewage entering the river at the 
foot of the drainage canal, the witness asserted that typhoid fever 
germs live so short a time under such conditions that there is no 
danger that the water leaving Lake Peoria can at any time contain 
more infectious material than exists in the diluted sewage flowing 
through the foot of the drainage canal. On the contrary, he was 
satisfied that there is a much smaller proportion in the water of Lake 
Peoria than in that of the canal. It is possible that where deposits 
of sewage matter are fresh, as they are in the bed of Chicago River, 
the sudden flushing out of such a stream may lead to an outbreak of 
typhoid fever within two or three days’ distance from such deposits; 
but the witness knew of no instance where an epidemic of typhoid 
fever had been traced to the removal or flushing out of such sewage 
matter that had been allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of 
several weeks without receiving any addition of fresh material. In 
this connection, he declared that the cause of the epidemic at Detroit 
cited in the testimony of Messrs. Sedgwick, Whipple, Williams, and 
others had not been established beyond a reasonable doubt as coming 
from Black River at Port Huron. (6316-6319.) 


244 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


On the assumption that an increase in typhoid fever since the 
opening of the drainage canal had actually occurred, which appeared 
to the witness to be contrary to the facts, it would be more reason¬ 
able to attribute such an increase to other causes than the canal, such 
as an infection of the water supply at some point nearer the intake, 
infection of the milk supply, or some other factor. (6323.) 

It was the judgment of the witness that the water supply of St. 
Louis during the period from 1895 to 1899 was not satisfactory, 
because of the great amount of typhoid fever in the city, together 
with the typho-malarial and other so-called malarial troubles which 
should have been classed as typhoid. All these being taken into 
consideration, the rate during the years mentioned was much higher 
than it ought to be in a city having a pure and satisfactory water 
supply. (6327.) 

The witness stated that it was impossible to'draw a fair comparison 
between the conditions on the Potomac River between Cumberland 
and Washington and those on the streams between Chicago and St. 
Louis. T.lie relatively rapid flow from Cumberland to Washington 
and the relatively short space of time required to travel this dis¬ 
tance represent a very different set of conditions than those prevail¬ 
ing in Illinois “River, because in the lower portion of the Illinois the 
current is sluggish and the time required for a body of water to pass 
very much greater than in the Potomac. (6334.) 

Chicago pollution is manifest at the mouth of Illinois River chiefly 
in the increased amount of chlorine and nitrogen present in the water, 
but so far as the original polluting matter and pathogenic bacteria 
are concerned, there are no grounds for adopting the opinion that 
these substances persist in their original condition as far down as 
Grafton. It is quite possible that some of the very stable compounds 
introduced at Chicago may reach Grafton, but such compounds have 
no sanitary significance. (6336.) 

The dams and slack-water basins in the Illinois River materially 
facilitate the process of sedimentation, but the removal of all the 
dams would not materially affect the purification of the Chicago 
sewage, because the elimination of the typhoid bacilli takes place in 
the upper portion of the stream. Such removal might, however, have 
some effect in retarding the purification of dangerous materials dis¬ 
charged by various communities in the lower stretches of the river. 
(6338-6339.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 


The witness stated that in his opinion the best evidence of the purity 
of a water supply is the effect which it produces on the health of the 
community using it for domestic purposes. (6345.) 

While nothing is definitely known as to the number of typhoid 
bacilli necessary to produce typhoid fever in man, it is well known, 


TESTIMONY OF EDWIN 0. JORDAN. 


245 


through experimental work on animals, that a single germ is rarely 
able to produce infection. In all cases of inoculation not one germ 
alone but many hundreds must be used in order to produce infection, 
even when these bacteria are introduced into the most delicate 
portions of the body. Reference was made to a case in which a 
laboratory worker attempted suicide by swallowing typhoid cultures. 
Several tubes of virulent culture produced only a mild attack of the 
disease, and while it is true that this person may not have been sus¬ 
ceptible, there are very few data on which to base an opinion concern¬ 
ing susceptibility. Persons between the ages of 15 and 35 are more 
liable to typhoid fever than younger or older persons, but there is 
little information showing on what this variation in susceptibility 
depends. (6350-6351.) 

With reference to the significance of sanitary analyses, the witness 
stated that there are cases in which light may be thrown on the sani¬ 
tary quality of a water by the chemical examination, when the bac¬ 
terial count at the time the examination is made fails to give infor¬ 
mation. For example, well water is often found to be high in chlorine 
and nitrates, which are indicated by the conditions to have originally 
come from sewage pollution. The number of bacteria in such a water 
may be low at the time the examination is made, but owing to the 
dangerous character of the surroundings the water would be con¬ 
demned by the prudent sanitarian, although the bacterial count had 
not been high, inasmuch as it would be subject at any time to another 
influx of pollution, which would then be shown by the bacterial count. 
In the light of all the experience of the witness in the chemical exami¬ 
nation of water, the amount and rate of nitrification in Illinois River 
between Lockport and Grafton are such as have been found in the 
experience of water analysts to accompany the disappearance of dis¬ 
ease-producing elements, and while it is not possible to establish 
absolutely from the results of chemical examinations that any point 
where samples had been taken is free from disease-producing elements, 
such analyses afford a certain kind of evidence that must be weighed 
in forming judgment as to the sanitary quality of the water. (6359- 
6363.) 

The cross-examiner then pointed out several instances in which 
the results of the witness’ chemical examinations anc]* those of Pro¬ 
fessor Palmer, made on samples of water taken at the same time and 
from the same point in the river, varied widely. The witness admitted 
these variations, but stated that the determinations are so delicate 
that even experienced water analysts obtaining samples of water 
under the same conditions would be expected to arrive at resuite that 
would differ, but such variations of 50 or even 100 per cent have no 
sanitary importance. The averages of a considerable series of 
analyses constitute the important factor, and little weight is attached 
to a single determination. (6366-6369.) 


246 POLLUTION OP LIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

The witness stated that he did not wish to put himself in the posi¬ 
tion of recommending the introduction of sewage of any degree of 
staleness into a river from which a public water supply was imme¬ 
diately taken. The esthetic as well as the sanitary side is to be con¬ 
sidered, and although he had stated that two days was about the 
limit of longevity of the typhoid bacillus in sewage, this time ought to 
be doubled or trebled to insure safety. It was his firm opinion that 
if the sewage contained in the Chicago drainage canal was from four 
to six days old typhoid bacilli would not be alive in it. (6375.) 

LUDWIG HEKTOEN. 

Prof. Ludwig Hektoen, called as a witness on behalf of the defend¬ 
ants, stated that he was a physician and surgeon, graduated from the 
College of Physicians and Surgeons in Chicago in 1887, had made a 
specialty of pathology in various hospitals and institutions in Cook 
County, Ill. and had studied extensively in Europe. His testimony, 
given on pages 6700-6716 of the record, was in general a confirmation 
of that part of the testimony of Professor Jordan relating to the 
typhoid and malarial death rates in St. Louis and the probable iden¬ 
tity of the two classes of diseases. He expressed the opinion that 
under that interpretation there had been no increase in typhoid in St. 
Louis. 

H. L. RUSSELL. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

II. L. Pussell, a witness called in behalf of the defendants, stated 
that he was in charge of the department of bacteriology in the Uni- 
/ersity of Wisconsin, having occupied that position since 1893. He 
had received his bachelor’s degree from that university in 1888, 
remained there as fellow in bacteriology until 1890, and then studied 
in Koch’s Institute in the University of Berlin, in the zoological sta¬ 
tion at Naples, and in the Pasteur Institute at Paris. He returned 
to America in 1891 and took the degree of doctor of philosophy at 
Johns Hopkins University. Since 1894 lie had been bacteriologist 
of the Wisconsin State board of health, and in that capacity, as well 
as in a private capacity, had had to do with the analyses of waters 
from a bacteTial point of view for sanitary purposes. In connection 
with this work he had made examinations of all the waters sub¬ 
mitted for public analysis in the State and had been specially 
engaged in the examination of the water supplies of Superior, Ash¬ 
land, Marinette, Merrill, Stevens Point, Wausau, Eau Claire, Port¬ 
age, Green Bay, Beloit, Baraboo, Wis.; Menominee, Mich., and 
Dubuque, Iowa. He had studied outbreaks of typhoid fever and 
made investigations of the subject at Baraboo in 1901 and at Ash¬ 
land, Superior, Menominee, and Marinette, lie professed to have 


TESTIMONY OF H. L. RUSSELL. 247 

an extensive acquaintance with the literature bearing on typhoid 
fever epidemics and other water-borne diseases. (6467-6469.) 

The witness stated that he had examined and studied the bacte¬ 
rial and chemical analyses of the waters of Lake Michigan, the drain¬ 
age canal, and Desplaines, Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers, 
as made and introduced into the testimony by Professors Jordan, 
Gehrmann, Palmer, and Burrill. In addition to this, lie made a 
journey in September, 1903, from Chicago to St. Louis by way of 
the above-named water courses, which had given him special oppor¬ 
tunities for the physical examination of those streams. (6469-6470.) 

With reference to the Bacillus prodigiosus experiment, an account 
of which was introduced into the testimony by Doctor Ravold, the 
witness stated that, assuming all the premises to be true and taking 
into consideration all the knowledge which he possessed concerning 
the distribution of this organism under normal conditions, he was 
of the opinion that the experiment did not in any way throw light 
on the probable longevity of the typhoid bacillus as measured by 
that of B. prodigiosus , and he was led to’believe it to be highly 
improbable that the organisms reported to have been found in the 
water taken from the intake tower at Chain of Locks were the same 
or were derived from the organisms placed in the water of the 
drainage canal. The witness based this conclusion on the fact that 
a series of examinations made of samples taken from Illinois Piver 
at Lockport, Joliet, Peoria, and Grafton between November 7 and 
December 15, amounting in all to 1,752 samples, and also of sam¬ 
ples taken from the intake tower at Chain of Pocks and from the 
laboratory tap in St. Louis between November 20 and March 1, 
amounting in all to 3,120 samples, failed to reveal the presence of 
B. prodigiosus until twenty-eight days had elapsed from the time the 
cultures were placed in the drainage canal. If the organisms reported 
to have been isolated from the waters of Illinois River at Grafton 
and Mississippi Piver at Chain of Pocks had been the same as those 
deposited in the canal, or their progeny, it would have been natural 
to expect that in the numerous preceding analyses that had been 
made organisms of this species would have been found, as there is 
reason to believe that the flow of water from the canal through 
Illinois Piver to St. Louis would not have consumed a period of 
twenty-eight days. It is not uncommon to find in the water of this 
region organisms which possess characteristics similar to those of 
B. prodigiosus by reason of the red pigment that they produce when 
grown upon the ordinary nutrient media, and which therefore might 
be mistaken for B. prodigiosus unless the characteristics of the germs 
isolated were studied in detail. (6473-6476.) 

The witness then described various pathogenic bacteria and other 
methods of identification, and stated that the typhoid bacillus is 


248 POLLUTION OP EIVEES BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

capable of retaining its vitality in soil for a varying period of time, 
depending on the influences to which it is subjected. When depos¬ 
ited in soil by burial the organism rapidly loses its vitality, so that 
at the expiration of a short period, measured by a few days, it can 
no longer be detected in the upper layers of the soil. When the 
soil is moist and the organism is deposited in typhoid dejecta, the 
germ is capable of retaining its vitality for a longer period of time, 
which may be measured by months. When deposited in water the 
life of the bacillus is materially shorter than in soil. Where it is 
brought into contact with a medium containing normal saprophytic 
bacteria, such as would naturally be found in sewage or polluted 
waters, the vitality of the typhoid germ is greatly impaired and its 
longevity would not normally be more than three or four days; but 
in waters of a great degree of purity, where saprophytic life is not so 
abundant, the longevity would be increased, so that it may possibly 
be found at the end of one or two weeks. (6477-0481.) 

The witness then described an extensive series of experiments con¬ 
ducted by him to determine the longevity of the typhoid organism. 
These experiments indicate that the germs of typhoid fever are 
capable of retaining their vitality for a period of time measured by 
months in water which is ordinarily pronounced pure and which has 
first been sterilized by heat and thus deprived of its ordinary germ 
life and possibly of the metabolic products of bacterial activity. 
When, however, the typhoid organism is introduced into such water 
that has been deprived of its bacterial life bv filtration and under 
conditions where soluble products of bacterial growth remain in the 
water, the life of the germ is considerably shorter than it is in water 
sterilized by heat. (6481-6482.) 

In the opinion of the witness the conditions under whicn laboratory 
experiments have been performed to determine the longevity of the 
typhoid organism are, as a rule, more favorable for the prolongation 
of vitality than natural conditions, because when the typhoid organ¬ 
ism is exposed under natural conditions—in flowing waters, for exam¬ 
ple—it is subjected to a numberof factors of a detrimental character 
which often can not be readily simulated under laboratory conditions. 
(6482.) ■ 

From.his knowledge of the conditions in the waters of the drainage 
canal and Illinois River the witness gave it as his opinion that the 
longevity of the typhoid organism in those waters would not be 
greater than three to four days, because of the great number of con¬ 
ditions exercising prejudicial effects on its vitality. lie stated that 
this assertion had been proved by experiments in which cultures ol 
the typhoid organism were placed in celloidin sacks, which, being 
germ tight, would not permit the passing out or in of any organisms 
but which would, on the other hand, permit the passage of the soluble 


TESTIMONY OF H. L. RUSSELL. 


products of the growth of these organisms. These sacks were placed 
in cultures made of nutrient material, to which was added various 
other kinds of material containing divers forms of saprophytic bac¬ 
teria. Under such conditions bacterial growth was abundant in the 
outside medium, but the organisms inside of the sacks were unable to 
grow and in many instances were actually killed. (6483-6484.) 

The dams in Illinois River, especially in the lower reaches, where 
the normal fall is slight, have a considerable effect in producing 
marked sedimentation of suspended matter in the water, and such 
sedimentation carries to the bottom much of the bacterial life, thus 
purifying the water. Inasmuch as the specific gravity of bacteria is 
only a trifle above that of water, the sedimentation of such organisms 
must necessarily accompany the sedimentation of suspended matter, 
which is at its maximum under quiescent conditions. It is extremely 
improbable that sufficient clear water from Lake Michigan could be 
discharged through the drainage canal to interfere with the normal 
sedimentation taking place in the river behind dams and in other 
practically quiescent portions ol the channel. (6486-6489.) 

Dilution of any polluted water with any pure water greatly diminishes 
the danger of infection from the use of such water. The infection of 
the human system from disease bacteria requires in some cases a simul¬ 
taneous introduction of more than one specific organism. When 
water which is infected with such bacteria is diluted with pure water 
the danger which might arise from the ingestion of such water is 
diminished. Therefore, on the assumption that the danger of infec¬ 
tion from sewage comes from the presence of pathogenic bacteria, a 
dilution of the sewage would diminish the number of bacteria of a 
specific kind per unit quantity of water. Thus the discharge of pure 
water from Lake Michigan into Illinois River, through the drainage 
canal, greatly minimizes the danger of infection which might come 
from the Chicago sewers, and when considered from the standpoint of 
dilution alone the injection of Lake Michigan water into Illinois River 
must be beneficial. Considering the conditions in Illinois River with 
reference to sedimentation and dilution and all other observable fac¬ 
tors which permit chemical and bacterial changes in the sewage, as 
revealed by the analytical results presented by the defendants, the 
witness did not believe that the sewage of Chicago could have any 
material effect on the waters of Mississippi River, except possibly to 
increase the amount of such undissolved salts, as chlorine, which are 
not taken out of solution and which would therefore find their way 
downstream, and thus increase the chlorine content of the waters of 
Mississippi River as it passes the shores of Missouri. Basing his opin¬ 
ion on results of investigations on the longevity of typhoid-fever 
bacilli in natural waters, the witness stated that dangerous pollution 
in Chicago sewage could not exert any influence on the character of 


250 POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

the waters of Illinois River at its mouth, because it had been shown 
that organisms capable of causing typhoid fever will not live in the 
waters of Illinois River for a sufficient period of time to be carried 
from Chicago to Grafton. (6489-6494.) 

The witness then gave an account of his joint experiments with 
Professors Jordan and Zeit for the purpose of determining the longev¬ 
ity of typhoid bacilli by confining them in impermeable sacks and 
exposing them in the waters of the Chicago drainage canal and Des- 
plaines River. The technique of these experiments is described in the 
testimony of Professor Jordan (pp. 235-236) and will not be repeated 
here. Professor Russell’s account can, however, be found on pages 
6496-6509 of the record. His work was carried on at Peoria. The 
results are discussed on pages 6509-6516 of the record and are reported 
in tabular form below. 


Table 81. —Results of longevity experiments with typhoid bacilli in water of Illinois River 

at Peoria by the impermeable-cell method. 


No. of laboratory sack. 

Strain of culture used. 

Number of typhoid organ¬ 
isms per cubic centime¬ 
ter inoculated. 

1st 

day. 

2d 

day. 

3d 

day. 

4th 

day. 

5th 

day. 

6th 

day. 

7th 

day. 

GO 

'3 

"o . 
0-0 
vh CP 

0 a 

u “ 

Sc 

A 

a 

3 

33 

’o 

a 
ft . 

■w CP 

"0 

0 0 

«- -3 
% 8 
3 

A 

go 

cp 

‘3 

0 

0 . 
0-0 
•*1 CP 

0.3 

Ih 

|c 

3 

3 

52? 

33 

0 

A 

ft , 
>. co 
+^> CP 

*31 
So 

A O 

3 

A - 

GO 

2 

'3 

JD 

0 . 

O 

vi a > 
©C 

Sc 

A 

3 

3 

£ 

33 

0 
c 
ft . 

GO 

+-> OP 

«w *3 
0 0 
So 

A O 

3 

3 

GG 

O 

*5 

0 

t—i 

O . 
O 

■« CP 
0.3 
u 03 

2* 

3 

3 

£ 

33 

0 

A 
ft . 

GO 

■*> O 

v—1 - 3 

4 

-C O 

3 

3 

5? 

c n 
<D 

’5 

0 

>■ t 

0 . 
O-C 

vi «CP 

ojr 

*-,2 

M 

ri 

3 

A 

33 

0 

A 

ft . 

>> GO 
C. 

•*—1 '3 

? 3 
& 0 

A O 

3 

A 

GO 

O 

’3 

0 

c . 
0 T3 

vi CP 

2-s 

3 

H 

3 

A 

"3 

O 

A 

ft . 

to 
•4-> CP 
VI '3 

4 

0 

3 

3 

* 

00 

2 

'3 

'o . 

O T3 

u-t Q) 

u, ™ 

| 

A 

35 

'0 

A 

ft . 

t>. GO 
CP 

VI '3 

c 0 

2 8 
3 

A 

1. 

X 

1,000 

12 

1 



9 

0 



11 

0 





2 

X 

2,000 







8 

0 







3. 

X 

4,000 











12 

0 



4. 

X 

10,000 







13 

0 

3 

0 



8 

0 

5. 

X 

20,000 

6 

6 



13 

2 



9 

0 

8 

0 

7 

0 

G. 

Y 

1,000 

8 

3 



6 

2 

* 







7. 

Y 

2,000 







9 

0 







8. 

Y 

4,000 











8 

0 



9. 

Y 

10,000 







11 

0 






0 

10. 

Y 

20,000 

8 

4 



16 

10 



18 

0 



6 

0 

11a. 















12. 

Z 

540 

(3b 

3 

I 12 

6 





8 

0 





13. 

Z 

540 

\17 

15 

1 










3 

0 

14. 

Z 

5,400 

3 6 

3 











1 

0 

15. 

Z 

10,800 

15 

14 

13 

6 





12 

0 



















Number of colonies daily examined 















from all sacks ... 



72 


25 


44 


41 


61 


28 


32 


Number of typhoid colonies found 





% 










on successive davs_ 



43 


12 


14 


0 


0 


0 


0 

Total number of sacks examined 









.... 

* * * * 

on different days of exposure. 

8 


2 


5 


4 


6 


3 


6 


Total number of 

sacks 

in which 















typhoid was found.... 



7 

.... 

2 

.... 

3 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 


a Control sack. 


b At end of 1 hour. 













































































































TESTIMONY OF H. L. RUSSELL. 251 


Table 81 .—Results of longevity experiments with typhoid bacilli in water of Illinois 
River at Peoria by the impermeable-cell method— Continued. 


No. of laboratory sack. 

Strain of culture used. 

Number of typhoid organ¬ 
isms per cubic centime¬ 
ter inoculated. 

9th 

day. 

10 th 

day. 

12 th 

day. 

14th 

day. 

16th 

day. 

17th 

day. 

Total. 

CO 

02 

'3 

o . 
02 

•*-1 QJ 

PC 

Sc 

C 

a 

3 

T3 

O 

C 

Pi . 

>1 CO 
+2> (D 

< * H 'e 
° c 

£"0 
£2 02 

3 

3 

0) 

<x> 

1 
r—t 

O . 

02 fQ 
<4H Q2 

P C 
u m 

Sc 

£2 

a 

3 

£ 

C 

0 

33 

a . 

>> co 
02 

si 

O) 0 
32 0 

£ 

CO 

2 

'3 

0 . 
02 

02 

o,d 

Sc 

£2 

3 

3 

‘0 

C 

Pn . 

CO 
-3 02 

Si 

02 O 
32 02 

3 

3 

£ 

to 

02 

‘3 

£ 

3 . 
02 

"4-4 02 

PC 

Sc 

32 

3 

3 

32 

0 

£} 

Pn . 

co 

+2 02 

•W ‘3 
0 O 

S 0 

32 0 

a 

3 

55 

CO 

02 

'3 

_o 

’0 . 

02 

*4-2 OJ 

Pc 

Sc 

32 

a 

3 

& 

32 

0 

c 

p . 

>2 05 
+2> 02 

<( - 1 '3 

S| 

XI O 

a 

— 

£ 

co 

02 

'3 

0 

0 . 

02 rQ 

>4-1 02 
Pc 

Sc 

£2 

3 

£ 

2 

*S 

Pi . 

GG 

0, 

'p 

S| 

a 

3 

1 . 

X 

1,000 



10 

0 










2 . 

X 

2,000 














3 . 

X 

4,000 














4 . 

X 

10,000 














5 . 

X 

20,000 



12 

0 

12 

0 

11 

0 



15 

0 


6 . 

Y 

1,000 







9 

0 





7 . 

Y 

2,000 





5 

0 

5 

0 

6 

0 




8 . 

Y 

4,000 



6 

0 

4 

0 



8 

0 




9 . 

Y 

10,000 



11 











10 . 

Y 

20,000 



7 

0 

6 

0 








11a . 















12 . 

Z 

540 





2 

0 








13. 

Z 

540 

4 

0 



7 

0 








14. 

Z 

5,400 














15. 

Z 

10,800 

14 

1 



2 

0 























Number of colonies daily examined 














from all sacks ... 



18 


46 


38 


25 


14 


15 


459 

Number of typhoid colonies found 

. 













on successive davs_ 



1 


0 


0 


0 


0 


0 

70 

Total nutnber of" sacks examined 














on different days of exposure. 

2 


5 


7 


3 


2 


1 


54 

Total number of sacks 

in which 














typhoid was found. 



1 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 

.... 

0 

14 


The witness then described another experiment, as follows: 

Nonnutrient agar from which all soluble products had been removed 
by washing was prepared in rectangular blocks about one-half inch 
square and 2 inches long. These blocks were inoculated in the center 
with freshly grown typhoid cultures forced into them by a platinum 
wire. After removing the wire the point of entry was sealed from 
contamination by searing the surface with a hot iron. According to 
Oswald, such agar possesses the property of allowing diffusion to take 
place quite as rapidly through its substance as through water. Hence 
it follows that typhoid organisms inclosed in the interior of such an 
agar mass, if exposed in an aqueous medium containing bacteria of 
various kinds, would be subjected to the same influences arising from 
the growth and development of water and of sewage bacteria as they 
would if they were placed directly in the water, but with the difference 
that the typhoid organism would not come into actual contact with 
extraneous water and sewage organisms. These blocks, inoculated 
with the three strains of typhoid bacilli mentioned in the testimony 
of Professor Jordan and designated as x, y, and 2 , were placed in 
the waters of Illinois River in small galvanized-iron cylinders, the 
top and bottom of which were covered with coarse wire netting. 



























































































252 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

Under these conditions the water had free access to the individual 
blocks. The results were as follows: 

Series 1, inoculated with culture x, was examined on the first day 
by taking one of these agar blocks and tearing off the upper surface 
and attemping to transfer any material which was in the line of the 
inoculation previously made. Similar transfers were made on the 
third, fifth, ninth, twelfth, fourteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth 
days after immersion. In no case did any growth occur on these sub¬ 
cultures. 

Series 2 was inoculated with the same organism and subcultures 
were made immediately and on the first, second, third, sixth, eighth, 
tenth, and thirteenth days. Growth was produced from the cultures 
made immediately and on the second day. 

Inoculation of series 3 was with the y strain and tests were made 
immediately after inoculation and on the first, third, fifth, seventh, 
tenth, twelfth, fourteenth, and seventeenth days. In no case were 
positive subcultures transferred except immediately after inoculation 
and on the fifth day. 

The fourth series was inoculated with the z strain and subcultures 
were transferred immediately and on the first, second, third, sixth, 
eighth, tenth, and thirteenth days. No positive results were found 
except in the transfers made immediately after inoculation and on the 
first day. 

The above experiments were conducted in the waters of Illinois 
River at Peoria. Subsequently two experiments were made in the 
waters of Lake Mendota at Madison, Wis., where cultures were 
removed on the third, seventh, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, fifteenth, 
and twenty-first days after immersion, but the typhoid-fever organ¬ 
ism was isolated only in the samples removed on the third and seventh 
days. The experiments as a whole showed a variation in the vitality 
of the typhoid organisms and a rapid destruction of them when 
exposed, not to the water nor the extraneous bacteria themselves, but 
merely to the soluble products which these germs are capable of pro¬ 
ducing. Control experiments were instituted with these agar blocks 
inoculated with the typhoid bacilli, the blocks not being exposed in 
the water but kept in the air. The results showed that the organism 
was capable of retaining its vitality for at least two weeks, and on 
some occasions for a longer period. (6516-6519.) 

The witness stated that from the results of his experiments, taken 
together with those of Professors Jordan and Zeit, he would conclude 
that the typhoid organism would live when immersed in the waters of 
Lake Michigan for a period of six or eight da}^s, in Chicago River from 
two to three days, and in Illinois River from three to four days at the 
longest. In view of the results obtained by the experiments, and the 
fact that in the judgment of the witness typhoid organisms deposited 


TESTIMONY OF H. L. RUSSELL. 


253 

in Chicago River, the drainage canal, and Illinois River would be 
subjected to influences even more detrimental than those existing 
under the conditions of the experiments, he was of the opinion that it 
would take a much longer period of time for the Chicago sewage to 
pass down Desplaines and Illinois rivers and finally reach Chain of 
Rocks than is required to kill typhoid organisms when placed in such 
an environment as that existing along these watercourses. The 
conditions under which the experiments were made approach more 
nearly the actual conditions to which the typhoid-fever organism is 
subjected when exposed in a flowing river, and therefore from a 
scientific standpoint a greater value may he attached to'conclusions 
based on these experiments than to any conclusions that had been 
previously drawn from the experiments of other investigators. The 
results show that typhoid bacilli live longer in pure water than in 
polluted water. . The experiments also shed light on the longevity 
of typhoid bacilli in the sediment of polluted streams. Under such 
conditions the pathogenic bacteria are brought into contact with even 
a larger number of other organisms than when they are exposed 
in the waters of a river, and therefore they are presumably in contact 
with increased amounts of unfavorable metabolic products, so that 
such conditions are certainly not less prejudicial than those found in 
the water of the stream itself. The witness expressed the opinion 
that if the longevity of the typhoid bacillus is impaired by the action 
of sewage and of water bacteria in a polluted stream, at least the 
same if not a greater effect would be produced if such typhoid organ¬ 
isms were in contact with these bacteria and the products of their 
growth in the sediment of the stream. (6519-6523.) 

The witness differentiated between the conditions prevailing in 
moist soil and in the sediment of running streams as follows: 

In the case of moist soil the interstices between the particles are not 
entirely filled with water, but a considerable amount of these spaces 
is fdled with air. In the sediment found in running streams or lakes 
such interstices are entirely filled with water. Under the latter con¬ 
ditions the unfavorable products of the growth of bacteria would be 
greatly diffused among the typhoid bacilli deposited there, while 
under the former conditions such ready diffusion could not take place, 
and therefore the typhoid bacteria would acquire a longer lease of 
life. Therefore, observations of the longevity of the typhoid germ 
in moist soil are not reliable bases to determine its longevity in 
stream sediment. The conditions are not comparable. (6525-6530.) 

With reference to the evidence cited by George W. Fuller concern¬ 
ing the persistence of typhoid germs in the sediment of Lake Geneva, 
the witness, after reviewing the conditions, stated that the results 
were doubtful, because early findings with reference to the discovery 
of the typhoid organism must be regarded as more or less unreliable, 


254 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


for the reason that no bacteriological data were given concerning the 
technical methods employed, and therefore the conclusions presented - 
are not justified from an experimental point of view. (6530-6536.) 

The attention of the witness was then directed to the typhoid sta¬ 
tistics of St. Louis and Chicago and the general drainage areas of 
Mississippi and Missouri rivers above St. Louis. lie cited the two 
methods of interpreting statistics known as the mortality percentage 
and the rate per unit of population methods, and expressed a prefer¬ 
ence for the latter, for the reason that in his opinion the former is 
liable to introduce errors which might readily vitiate the accuracy of 
the statistics. When the number of deaths from any particular 
disease is compared with the total number of deaths, a wrong basis 
of comparison is involved. What is wanted in any given community 
is to know whether a disease is increasing more rapidly than the 
increase in population. The fatality rate of any disease should not 
be based on the ratio between the death rate from that disease and 
the total death rate, because the variation which often occurs in the 
total death rate may be subject to many conditions. Suppose, for 
example, that a serious epidemic of some disease like bubonic plague 
or yellow fever should occur. It would he manifestly improper to 
compare the typhoid death rate in that community with the total 
number of deaths because in such case it would be shown that the 
typhoid rate was decreasing; whereas it might actually be on the 
increase, but by reason of the unusual number of deaths due to the 
epidemic of the other disease it would appear to be less by compari¬ 
son. (6540-6542.) 

The witness then expressed the opinion that the liability of typhoid 
epidemics arising by infection from rural populations was often 
underestimated and cited a number of well-known cases—notably 
those at Lausanne, Switzerland; Plymouth and Butler, Pa.; Lowell, 
Mass., and Ithaca, N. Y.—all of which were attributed to isolated 
points of infection in rural communities. Such infection is especially 
to be feared on account of the carelessness which prevails in such 
communities in the disposition of the dejecta. Disinfection is not 
maintained as faithfully in the country as in cities. (6542-6543.) 

The witness then gave it as his opinion that the evidence to be 
adduced from the chemical and bacteriological studies of river waters 
affords the best possible means known to determine whether such 
waters are likely to serve as carriers of infection. The analytical 
evidence that can be gathered from samples of such waters taken at 
frequent intervals for a considerable period of time should show the 
progress of self-purification in such running streams, and the data 
furnished become the foundation on which a sanitarian or epidemiol¬ 
ogist must base his conclusions, although it has been abundantly 


TESTIMONY OF H. L. RUSSELL. 255 

proved that water supplies are not the only means by which typhoid 
epidemics may be disseminated. (6543-6545.) 

With reference to the apparent increase of typhoid fever in St. 
Louis during 1900 to 1903, inclusive, as compared with previous 
years, the witness stated that, assuming that these statistics are true 
and taking into consideration the conditions which prevailed in the 
drainage basins of the three rivers mentioned and the fact that there 
are sources of pollution from which typhoid organisms might arise 
which are not so far removed from St. Louis as Chicago, and taking 
into consideration further the results of typhoid experiments which 
have been made, as detailed in the testimony, he thought that there 
was no scientific reason justifying the conclusion that the increase' 
reported by the St. Louis board of health for the period above men¬ 
tioned is due to infectious matter derived from the sewers of Chicago 
by way of the drainage canal. (6545-6546.) 

The terms remittent, intermittent, typho-malarial, congestive, and 
simple continued fevers are relics of old methods of description 
which attempted to differentiate these febrile changes merely on the 
basis of the symptoms most evident. They are not recognized by 
bacteriologists or clinicians of the present time as being satisfactory 
names for specific types of fevers. The witness was then asked a 
hypothetical question, based on the assumption that the number of 
deaths reported as occurring from typhoid fever and from remittent, 
intermittent, typho-malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers 
during the period from 1890 to 1903 in St. Louis was as shown in 
Table 80 (p. 242). In reply he expressed the opinion that the record 
for typhoid fever did not represent the total number of deaths from 
that disease occurring in the city, and that the large number of deaths 
reported from the remittent fevers was due to improper diagnosis. 
If the deaths attributed to the other diseases had been diagnosed 
according to modern methods they would in the large majority of 
cases have been found to be typhoid fever, and it was the opinion of 
the witness that they should all be included in the statistics as such. 
The death rate from the malarial fevers indicated in the second column 
is comparatively insignificant in the United States, and of necessity 
it follows that no city has so high a death rate from these diseases as 
is represented in the number of deaths reported in the St. Louis sta¬ 
tistics. It would be practically impossible for anyone to give an 
accurate idea as to what percentage of the deaths reported as due to 
those diseases should be certainly charged to typhoid fever, but it 
would undoubtedly be safe to attribute a large proportion to this 
disease. It is noteworthy that in regions where malaria is known to 
be common, and where the best modern methods of diagnosis are 
employed, the large number of deaths reported as due to genuine 


25(3 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


malarial fever has been greatly reduced since the introduction of 
those methods. (6549-6556.) 

Taking into consideration the fact that the typhoid statistics as 
reported to the health commissioner of St. Louis did not represent 
the actual conditions in that city with reference to the disease, but 
that these statistics should be increased by a large proportion, if not 
all, of the deaths reported under the captions remittent, intermittent, 
typho-malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers, the witness 
expressed the opinion that when such additions are made for the 
period covered by the statistics presented, and when the corrected 
statistics are compared with the typhoid-fatality statistics of other 
cities where similar types of water supply are used for municipal pur¬ 
poses, they show that there had been no increase in the actual number 
of typhoid deaths occurring in St. Louis from 1900 to 1903, inclusive, 
as compared with the rate prevailing for the period 1890 to 1900, 
inclusive. (6559-6560.) 

The water supply of St. Louis is not less valuable for drinking pur¬ 
poses nor more liable to carry water-borne diseases since the opening 
of the Chicago drainage canal than it was before, because experiments 
have shown that the typhoid organism is killed in Illinois River in a 
period of time less than that which is necessary for the water to flow 
from Chicago to St. Louis; and, the destruction of typhoid organ¬ 
isms being assumed as an index of the destruction of all pathogenic 
organisms in water, it is safe to assert that the same statements are 
true lor the cholera germ. (6560-6561.) 

The increase in the speed of the current of Illinois River caused by 
the added volume of water discharged into it from the drainage canal 
probably alters the manner of sedimentation occurring in the river. 
The added water carries with it a larger amount of suspended organic 
matter and therefore increases the amount of suspended material, the 
result being an increase of sedimentation. If this increase did not 
cause an overflow of the banks, the speed of the current would carry 
the suspended matter farther downstream, but it was the opinion of 
the witness that the removal from the river of the sewage from Joliet, 
Peoria, and other places along the banks would be effected before 
such sewage reaches the Mississippi, so that it would not materially 
alter the condition of the Mississippi, except in the case of such salts 
as chlorides and nitrates, which are not eliminated from the water in 
the purification of sewage. In case, however, the water is made less 
turbid by the addition of the discharge of the Chicago drainage canal 
the sedimentation that would normally occur in the river would be 
lessened. From the experimental evidence previously adduced con¬ 
cerning the limited period of life of the typhoid organisms it would 
follow that an additional volume of water discharged from the drain¬ 
age canal, causing an increase in the speed of the current of Illinois 


TESTIMONY OF H. L. RUSSELL. 


257 


River, would not have any effect in increasing or diminishing typhoid 
fever among the inhabitants of the State of Missouri who use the 
waters of the Mississippi below the mouth ot Illinois River. 
(6561-6562.) 

The witness then contradicted the assertion of Professor Sedgwick 
concerning the longevity of the germ of typhoid fever, namely, “My 
belief is that in a sewage-polluted stream the typhoid germ might live 
in gradually diminishing numbers for weeks, or months, or even 
years,” stating that it has been shown by experimental evidence that 
the typhoid organism dies out with special rapidity in sewage-polluted 
waters. He also considered untenable the assumption of Professor 
Sedgwick that typhoid fever germs could pass from the sewers of 
Chicago by way of the drainage canal to Lake Peoria and be depos¬ 
ited there in the bed of the lake for a period of one month and after¬ 
wards be swept out and contaminate the water supply of St. Louis. 
He further stated that he knew of no evidence justifying Professor 
Sedgwick’s conclusion that there might at times be a larger number 
of typhoid organisms in Lake Peoria, due to accumulations there, 
than would actually be passing out of the drainage canal at the Bear 
Trap dam. On the contrary, there was every reason to believe that 
the typhoid organisms present at the Bear Trap dam would be 
entirely discharged before reaching Lake Peoria. (6562-6566.) 

The witness expressed the opinion that the five dams erected across 
Illinois River would act in a material way in aiding the sedimentation 
of dangerous matters deposited in that stream, but in view of the 
fact that the sewage of Chicago is practically purified before it reaches 
these dams they actually have no effect on purification of the river 
so far as Chicago sewage is concerned. (6577-6578.) 

Missouri River, draining a large area on which many cities are 
located which discharge sewage into the stream, must be regarded as 
very liable to carry pollution for varying distances, and therefore can 
not be considered as a safe source of water for drinking purposes at 
Fort Bellefontaine. Illinois River above Grafton was also considered 
unsafe, but the opening of the drainage canal did not make it more 
unsafe than it was previous to the date of the opening. The witness 
then closed his direct testimony with the following statement: 

In view of the fact that the conditions which obtain in the city of St. Louis and 
the conditions of the watersheds which are immediately adjacent to this city; in view 
of the fact that the typhoid-fever death rate in that city is dependent upon other 
conditions than those due to the water supply of that city and may be materially 
influenced by operation of many other factors; in view of the conditions which obtain 
in the Illinois River with reference to the process of purification which would occur 
in the sewage of Chicago when deposited in the drainage canal; and taking into con¬ 
sideration all the knowledge which I possess with reference to all data which bear 
directly or indirectly upon the question involved, it is my opinion that the increase 


irr 104—07 


17 




258 


POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


in the typhoid deaths, as reported in the city of St. Louis, assuming such increase to 
be true, which have occurred since the opening of the drainage canal, can not beyond 
all reasonable doubt be attributed as a direct, immediate, and approximate cause for 
said increase to the opening of that drainage canal. (6581.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

With regard to the index of sewage pollution in surface waters, the 
witness stated that it is generally conceded that the presence of 
bacteria belonging to the colon type is significant. A water supply 
containing a large number of these organisms can be regarded by 
bacteriologists as having been more or less polluted with sewage at 
no distant date. He did not recall any cases where under natural 
conditions a water had been infected with disease-producing organ¬ 
isms to such an extent as to be able to produce epidemic disease and 
where such water had failed to reveal the presence of the colon 
organisms in considerable numbers, although he could conceive of 
cases in which infection was sporadic and discontinuous, where the 
evidence of such infection might not be revealed by bacteriological 
examination and still that water may have previously been the cause 
of an epidemic of disease. (6583-6584.) 

Bacteria of the colon type might be found in water that had been 
unexposed to sewage. The colon organism is a normal inhabitant 
of the intestinal tract of higher animals and therefore its mere pres¬ 
ence in a surface water can not be regarded as direct evidence of 
human pollution; but the intimate relation existing between path¬ 
ogenic organisms capable of producing disease and certain well- 
known bacteria which do not belong to the distinctive pathogenic 
class, but which are always present in intestinal discharges, makes it 
advisable and necessary to resort to the colon test. (6585.) 

E. G. HASTINGS. 

E. G. Hastings, called as a witness on behalf of the defendants, 
stated that he was an instructor in bacteriology. Ilis testimony 
was a corroboration of that of H. L. Russell with reference to the 
experiments on the longevity of the typhoid baccillus when exposed 
to sewage. The witness was Professor Russell's assistant in connec¬ 
tion with the experiments on parchment cells and made inoculations 
therefrom in the work carried on in Illinois River at Averyville. 
(6716-6733.) 


TESTIMONY FOR DEFENDANTS. 


259 


F. ROBERT ZEIT. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

F. Robert Zeit, a witness called in behalf of the defendants, stated 
that he was a teacher in the Northwestern University medical school 
and post graduate medical school of pathology and bacteriology, 
having occupied the position for five years; he had received his early 
education in Switzerland and Germany, and had taken the regular 
medical course at the Western Reserve University at Cleveland, 
Ohio, from 1884 to 1887; afterwards for three years he was instructor 
and collaborator in the private laboratory of Professor Klebs, instruc¬ 
tor of pathology in the Rush Medical College; he was then called to 
the Northwestern University as teacher in bacteriology; after one 
year was made professor of bacteriology in the university medical 
school, and later was placed in charge of the entire department of 
pathology and bacteriology. During the entire seven years in which 
the witness was engaged exclusively in teaching bacteriology and 
pathology he had made special studies of these questions. Before 
engaging in the profession of teaching, he had practiced medicine 
and surgery in Wisconsin and in Chicago for ten years. (4396-4398.) 

The witness stated that from February 6 to October 1, 1900, he 
had made bacteriological examinations of the waters of the Chicago 
drainage canal and Illinois River, samples being furnished to him 
by Professor Long. He stated that in this series of investigations 
his province had been merely the determination of the presence or 
the absence of pathogenic bacteria. He did not make any counts 
of colonies or any of the usual tests. The samples when received 
from Professor Long were plated out on gelatine and agar; from 
three to sixteen dilutions were made in Petri dishes. Glucose agar 
plates for the growth of anaerobes were also made. All the gelatine 
plates were kept at a temperature of 20° to 22° C. and the agar plates 
in the incubator at 37° C. The plates were examined daily and pure 
cultures obtained on agar from the various colonies, between the 
second and eleventh days. The pure cultures were then subjected 
to such further study as was necessary. The results of the examina¬ 
tions are set forth in Table 82. (4398-4421.) 


Table 82. —Results of bacteriological examinations of waters of the drainage canal and Illinois River, taken from designated points, 1900. 


260 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


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262 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness stated that in connection with the foregoing investi¬ 
gations experiments were made on guinea pigs by injecting in eacli 
4 c. c. of water from each of the stations where samples were pro¬ 
cured. Another set of experiments was made in the same manner 
with cultures obtained from the samples submitted by adding 1 c. c. 
of the water to 5 c. c. of nutrient bouillon and keeping the mixture 
in an incubator at a temperature of 37° C. for twenty-four hours. 
The guinea pigs inoculated with the specimens of the Lake Michigan 
tap water all recovered, and of three guinea pigs inoculated by intra- 
peritoneal injections with cultures obtained from this water onl} T 
one died of sepsis, and subcutaneous injections caused only local 
abscesses, from which the animals all recovered. Intraperitoneal 
injection of the guinea pigs with water taken from the drainage 
canal at Western avenue did not prove fatal in any instance, but 
the animals injected with cultures invariably died. Injection of the 
water obtained at Bridgeport did not produce death, but all the cul¬ 
tures were fatal, though in only one instance did death result from 
subcutaneous injection. Water taken at Lockport produced no 
results, while the effect on animals inoculated with cultures from 
these samples was varied—some of them recovered, one died of sep¬ 
sis, and one that had apparently recovered died after a period of 
about two weeks, though post-mortem examination failed to dis¬ 
close bacteria. In the blood of the animal which died promptly 
proteus forms were most prominent. All those which recovered had 
an elevated temperature and lost rapidly in weight for several days. 
Water taken at Joliet when injected intraperitoneally produced no 
effect, and of all the animals inoculated with cultures only one died 
of sepsis, the others recovering. Both the water and cultures taken 
at Wilmington, on Kankakee River, produced no results by intra¬ 
peritoneal injection. Direct intraperitoneal injection of the water 
taken at Morris, on Illinois River, in one instance caused death in 
eleven days, while other samples did not produce fatal results^ 
Experiments with mixed cultures gave uncertain results, some of the 
animals dying and some not. Samples of water taken from Illinois 
River at Ottawa and cultures obtained therefrom proved not to be 
virulent. Samples from Fox River at Ottawa and mixed cultures 
obtained from them were nonproductive of fatal results. Illinois 
River water taken at La Salle in one case proved fatal, the animal 
dying of sepsis. The cultures of this water, however, were very 
virulent. Direct injection of the water taken at Henry did not 
cause death, though the mixed cultures from these samples were 
virulent. The cultures obtained from Averyville samples were 
entirely nonvirulent. The witness stated that the evidence of bac¬ 
terial self-purification afforded by the examination of these samples 
showed that there was a gradual decrease in the number of disease- 


TESTIMONY OF F. ROBERT ZEIT. 


263 


producing as well as sewage bacteria from Chicago to Averyville. 
lie believed that the experiments on the guinea pigs constituted 
sufficient proof that the zone of self-purification must be reached 
somewhere above or near that place. With regard to the samples 
received from Peoria, he testified that direct injection of the water 
caused death in eleven days, while another animal died of sepsis 
within twenty-four hours after inoculation, and that the bacteria 
markedly increased at this point. Both the water taken from Illi¬ 
nois River at Havana and the cultures made with it were shown to 
be highly productive of disease in guinea pigs and white mice when 
injected intraperitoneally. A number of the animals died of anthrax 
bacteremia within forty to forty-eight hours, and the blood of all of 
them contained numerous anthrax bacilli. Water taken from Spoon 
River at Havana, however, did not prove fatal in any instance, nor 
were the cultures virulent. Samples taken at Pearl and Grafton 
and the cultures obtained therefrom were nonvirulent. (4403-4421.) 

With reference to the relative longevity of disease-producing 
organisms and the ordinary water bacteria and saprophytes in Illi¬ 
nois River and the drainage canal, the witness stated that the 
growth and multiplication of the ordinary water bacteria depend 
very little on organic matter in the water or its temperature, but 
the condition and growth of the saprophytic or sewage bacteria 
are largely governed by the presence or absence of dead organic 
matter, and they usually require a somewhat higher temperature 
than the ordinary water bacteria. The existence or disappearance of 
the pathogenic or disease-producing bacteria (including the typhoid 
and cholera bacilli) is dependent on dilution, light, temperature, and 
the presence or absence of large numbers of saprophytes. Where 
the saprophytes are numerous, the typhoid and similar pathogenic 
bacteria are rapidly overgrown by them and disappear in five or six 
days. Where conditions are favorable to the production and mul¬ 
tiplication of water bacteria, the existence of the pathogenic bacte¬ 
ria reaches eight to ten days. If typhoid bacilli, however, are placed 
in water containing none of the other two types of bacteria, they 
can live for weeks, even in the absence of food. The higher the 
temperature the more favorable the conditions are for the growth of 
the disease-producing bacteria, while low temperatures make their 
multiplication impossible. According to the witness the typhoid 
bacilli, in the absence of many water bacteria and saprophytes, will 
live for some time; the smaller the number of saprophytes the longer 
the existence of the typhoid bacilli. (4421-4422.) 

The witness further stated that the typhoid bacillus will multiply 
only in a favorable temperature, the optimum being 37° C., or about 
blood heat, and only where there is organic matter for food. While 
the typhoid bacillus can grow in as low a temperature as 24° C., a 


264 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


mixture with other rapidly growing bacteria at this temperature will 
result in its overgrowth and disappearance. (4423.) 

He then expressed the opinion that the number of bacteria is not of 
so much importance in determining the purity or impurity of a given 
body of water as their character. The number of water bacteria may 
be very great and not have much significance, whereas if they are sew¬ 
age or pathogenic bacteria the number may be very small and the 
water might be called perfect chemically, but could not be called per¬ 
fect bacteriologically. Furthermore, to judge solely by the number 
of bacteria present, a water containing less than 50 germs per cubic 
centimeter would have to be called a good water, and yet if these 50 
germs happened to be disease producing the water should be con¬ 
demned. The number of bacteria is significant only in determining, 
after the normal condition has been ascertained, whether pollution in 
a given body of water is increasing or diminishing. The essential point 
is the quality of the germs and whether they are sewage or water 
bacteria. (4426.) 

The witness stated that he had not found any typhoid bacilli in his 
examinations of the waters of Illinois River or the drainage canal, but 
that this was by no means strange, because it was frequently the case 
that sewage contaminated with typhoid bacilli got into comparatively 
large bodies of water where the dilution would be so tremendous as to 
make it difficult or impossible to relocate the germs. The typhoid 
bacillus does not multiply at the normal temperature of river or lake 
water, and in case of contamination of such waters by sewage the 
typhoid germs are overgrown by water bacteria and ultimately disap¬ 
pear. The witness stated that even where it is known that a water 
supply has been contaminated by sewage containing typhoid bacilli, 
bacteriologists have been unable to find Jffiese germs, the reasons 
being, first, that the unfavorable temperature of the water pre¬ 
vents multiplication of pathogenic organisms; second, that sewage 
bacteria undergo rapid multiplication and overgrow the parasitic bac¬ 
teria; and, third, that extensive dilution takes place and separates the 
bacilli so far that they can not be found. Furthermore, in most epi¬ 
demics where search has been made for typhoid bacilli and they have 
not been found, the time of infection or of contamination has no doubt 
been passed by several weeks, and the typhoid bacilli which might 
have been found earlier have entirely disappeared during that 
period. (4427.) 

Being asked what significance was to be attached to the gradual 
disappearance of sewage and pathogenic bacteria in running water, 
the witness expressed it as his opinion that by reason of the over¬ 
growth of saprophytes in the presence of organic material, together 
with a temperature favorable to their rapid multiplication, the patho¬ 
genic bacteria in such water are destroyed entirely. In other words, 


TESTIMONY OF F. ROBERT ZEIT. 


265 


by the rapid multiplication of sewage bacteria, the disease-producing 
bacteria, which grow best at the temperature of the body, will be over¬ 
grown and will perish, so that by the time the sewage bacteria and 
organic matter has disappeared the purification of the water of patho¬ 
genic bacteria must be complete. (4431.) 

Assuming that the dejecta of typhoid-fever patients in Chicago are 
carried into the drainage canal through the sewers of the city; that the 
waters in that canal contain immense numbers of saprophytes and 
ordinary water bacteria, to the number of 70,000 and frequently as 
many as 4,000,000 per cubic centimeter; that it requires at least 
twenty-four hours, and at times as much as forty-eight hours, for 
the water to pass from the Chicago sewers into Chicago River and the 
drainage canal and reach the Bear Trap dam; and assuming further, 
that the flow in Desplaines and Illinois rivers is equal to 40 miles in 
twenty-four hours, the witness expressed the opinion that the typhoid 
bacilli would not survive as far as Peoria, for the reason that the sapro¬ 
phytic bacteria increase at such a tremendous rate in the drainage 
canal as to actually overgrow and annihilate any pathogenic bacteria 
in the water. (4456-4458.) 

With reference to the conclusions to be drawn from his experiments, 
set forth in Table 77, as to the relative bacterial purity of the respec¬ 
tive streams at the time of examination, the witness stated that he 
would regard Missouri River as more polluted than the Mississippi or 
the Illinois, and the Mississippi as more polluted than the Illinois. 
(4459.) 

The relative longevity of the typhoid bacillus as compared with that 
of Bacillus prodigiosus was stated by the witness to be ordinarily very 
similar, though it depends entirely on the surrounding conditions. It 
was his opinion that in the waters of Illinois River and the Illinois and 
Michigan Canal Bacillus prodigiosus would live longer than the typhoid 
bacillus. (4463-4464.) 

The witness stated that in his examinations of the waters of Lake 
Michigan, Chicago River, Illinois River, and the drainage canal he had 
never discovered Bacillus prodigiosus, but that he had, during the 
early part of his work in 1900, occasionally obtained in Lake Michigan 
a few red colonies which appeared to have all the characteristics of 
this germ, differing, however, in that they grew very well on sterilized 
banana slices, were larger than the ordinary B. prodigiosus, and occa¬ 
sionally produced gas. No description of another organism could be 
found in literature corresponding to these bacteria, and so he had been 
inclined to call them B. prodigiosus , but while on culture media they 
seemed almost identical with B. prodigiosus, on agar they had the 
appearance of red sealing wax. For this reason he had called them 
the sealing-wax organisms. (4465.) 

The zone of bacterial purification of a river, according to the witness, 


266 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


is that part of a sewage-polluted stream where saprophytic organisms 
and pathogenic bacteria have disappeared and where the normal bac¬ 
terial flora of the river before it received the pollution is again estab¬ 
lished. This zone varies in different rivers and in different localities 
between distances of 9 to 40 miles. As examples of rivers in which 
the zone oi purification has been determined by bacteriologists, the 
witness cited the following: , 

The River Seine, after receiving all the sewage of Paris, purifies 
•itself within a distance of 70 kilometers, or 43 miles, having the same 
number of organisms and the same bacterial flora that it had before 
receiving the sewage.® The River Oder receives the sewage of 
Breslau and 20 miles below the city contains the same number of bac¬ 
teria that it did previous to receiving the sewage. 6 The city of 
Zurich, Switzerland, discharges its sewage into the River Limmat, 
which flows from a lake of very pure water, containing between 100 
and 200 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Fourteen kilometers, or 9 
miles below the city, this river has again established its bacterial 
purity.® The River Isar receives all the sewage of Munich and puri¬ 
fies itself within a distance of 33 kilometers, or 20 miles. d The River 
Spree, after receiving the sewage of Berlin, which is so great as to 
cause the bacteria to increase to about 1,000,000 per cubic centimeter, 
flows through the small lake of Havel, and on its exit from the lake at 
Sacrow has practical^ the same bacterial condition that it had pre¬ 
vious to receiving the Berlin sewage®. The distance traveled by tho 
sewage-polluted water was believed by the witness to be about 9 
miles. (4466-4468.) 

The witness expressed the opinion that typhoid bacilli, after lying 
in the bed of a stream for a period in excess of sixty days, would be 
unable to cause typhoid fever when taken into the human system, and 
when asked if a substance coming from the sewers of Chicago through 
the drainage canal and deposited on the bed of Illinois River could 
remain for any considerable length of time and still retain its danger¬ 
ous qualities and pathogenic bacteria, he stated that lie believed such 
pathogenic bacteria would die in the drainage canal, owing to the 
increase of saprophytic bacteria. It was his opinion that the sewage 
discharged by Chicago into the drainage canal could not and did not 
constitute a menace to St. Louis or to the inhabitants of Missouri. 
From all the examinations he had made of Illinois, Mississippi, and 
Missouri rivers during October, November, and December, 1901, and 
February and March, 1902, it was his opinion that bacteriologically 
the Illinois was less polluted than either of the other two rivers. 
(4471-4473.) 


a Rubner, Hygiene, Berlin, 1901. 
b Frankland 

c Schlatter, Zeitschnft fiir Hygiene, vol. 190, p. 56. 


d Prausnitz, Hygiene, 1900 or 1901. 
e Zeitschrift. fiir Hygiene, vol. 3 ,p. 355. 



TESTIMONY OF F. EOBEET ZEIT. 


267 

With reference to the Bacillus prodigiosus experiment described in 
the test imony of Doctor Ravold, for the complainant, the witness stated 
that there should be considerable doubt as to the identity of the few 
prodigiosus bacilli reported to have been discovered after the dis¬ 
charge of the cultures into the drainage canal, for the reason that the 
isolation of these bacteria was based on the red reaction test alone, 
which is not sufficient to establish their identity beyond question. 
Therefore, taking into consideration the many millions of these bacilli 
discharged into the canal, their practical absence afterwards would be 
an indication of the purification of the water; and since the typhoid 
bacillus would not live as long under these same conditions as B. pro¬ 
digiosus , it would follow that typhoid bacilli discharged into the drain¬ 
age canal from the sewers of Chicago would not survive the passage 
down Illinois and Mississippi rivers and into the intake tower of the 
St. Louis waterworks at Chain of Rocks. (4477-4478.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

During the cross-examination the witness stated that lie had made 
experiments on the life of the typhoid germ in samples of water from 
Illinois River at Grafton, Missouri River above its mouth, and Mis¬ 
sissippi River above its confluence with the Illinois. The river water 
was first inoculated with different known quantities of twenty-four- 
hour bouillon culture of typhoid bacilli and placed in the refrigerator 
at a temperature of 10° to 12° C. It was then plated out daily on agar 
in a number of dilutions. Fifteen to twenty plates were made, and 
from these the one showing the most distinct colonies was selected 
and all the colonies thereon that looked like typhoid were marked for 
examination. It was then determined whether or not the colony 
was a bacillus and if so whether or not it was motile. If not a motile 
bacillus, it was thrown out. The Widal reaction would be obtained 
with a motile bacillus by the use of the serum of an immunized rabbit 
or the blood of a typhoid patient. A positive reaction was considered 
satisfactory evidence of the presence of the typhoid bacillus, but where 
no such reaction could be obtained the usual cultures were made of the 
suspicious motile bacilli. In these experiments, the witness was 
unable to find the typhoid bacillus after five or six days, even where 
large quantities of bouillon culture were inoculated into the water. 
(4482-4483.) 

The witness stated that when the water of a river was at the freez¬ 
ing point, as it is in the coldest part of the year, both saprophytes and 
typhoid bacilli would probably remain as they would in ice; that as 
the temperature became lower than that of the air the saprophytes 
would increase less and less, and that, in his opinion, conditions in 
water polluted by sewage are more favorable for the life of the typhoid 


268 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

bacillus than the conditions would be in laboratory experiments, owing 
to the greater amount of organic matter present in the polluted water. 
(4485-4487.) 

In comparing the effects of the injection of typhoid and colon 
bacilli, the witness stated that if typhoid culture is injected into an 
animal no infection results, but death follows from poisons producing 
a toxic effect, all animals being immune from typhoid fever. Injec¬ 
tion of the colon bacilli may result in death through toxic causes, but 
injection is usually followed by an infection, the animal dying of 
septic peritonitis after a period of five to ten days. (4536-4537.) 

In response to a direct question the witness admitted that it would 
be possible for typhoid germs which had been frozen into a block of 
ice in the drainage canal, on the passage of the ice down the canal and 
into Illinois River, to reach the intake of the St. Louis waterworks if 
the bacteria had survived the freezing process. (4609.) 

REDIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Four months later Professor Zeit was recalled for further direct tes¬ 
timony and stated that since having previously testified in the case he 
had, in conjunction with Professors Jordan and Russell, made experi¬ 
ments on the longevity of the typhoid bacillus, his part of the work 
having been the examination of samples of water from Lake Michigan 
and Chicago River. Two plans were adopted. The first involved 
the use of parchment sacks and the second the use of celloidin sacks, 
both intended to allow osmosis and both containing typhoid bacilli in 
the presence of the saprophytes normally present in the waters, the 
object being to allow the saprophytic bacteria to multiply and yet not 
retain within the sack their excretions, which would destroy the 
typhoid bacilli. There was a free interchange of conditions inside and 
outside of the sack, the one difference being that within the sack were 
imprisoned the typhoid bacilli. (6421-6422.) 

The sacks were inoculated with typhoid bacilli that had been grown 
upon agar slants for twenty-four hours in the incubator, enough of the 
bacilli being placed in the sacks to produce a mixture of about 
500,000 typhoid bacilli per cubic centimeter of water. One strain of 
typhoid bacilli, received from Professor Jordan, was obtained from the 
blood of a typhoid-fever patient in the Cook County hospital. A sec¬ 
ond strain, received from Parke, Davis & Co., of Detroit, had been 
used to immunize a horse. With this strain the serum of the immu¬ 
nized horse was also received. The sacks were suspended in Chicago 
River at the Ashland Avenue Bridge in boxes similar to those de¬ 
scribed in the testimony of Professor Jordan, and in Lake Michigan 
similar sacks were suspended in a jar through which the fresh lake 
water was constantly flowing. From the time the sacks were sus- 


TESTIMONY OF F. ROBERT ZEIT. 


269 


pended in the two localities agar plates from both samples were made 
daily. (6423-6424.) 

In the experiments conducted with the parchment sacks a typhoid 
suspension, made by distributing material from colonies grown upon 
agar slants for twenty-four hours, was used. The sacks were first 
filled with 800 c. c. of river water, to which was then added enough of 
the suspension of typhoid bacilli to make in the sack a mixture of 
200,000 to 1,500,000 typhoid bacilli per cubic centimeter of water. 
The average mixture used contained 500,000 bacilli per cubic centi¬ 
meter of water. After infection samples were plated out at once and 
on the following day a sample of the water was removed from the 
sack by means of a sterile pipette, the sack having been first examined 
for leaks. This sample was immediately taken to the laboratory and 
plated out. For each agar plate from 0.001 to 5 c. c. was used. 
Eight experiments were made at each of the sampling points, and a 
number of examinations were made for each experiment, the first 
being usually twenty-four hours after the placing of the sack in the 
water and the others daily thereafter. (6424-6425.) 

In the parchment-sack experiments only one sack was placed in the 
water for each experiment, and samples were removed daily for 
examination, but in those with the celloidin sacks a number of sacks 
were placed in the water at the same time and one sack was removed 
each day for the examination. In no case was a sample of water 
removed from the celloidin sack for examination, the object being to 
avoid all possible chance of contamination. (6426.) 

After the samples of water had been taken to the laboratory and 
plated out the agar plates were placed in the incubator over night. 
They were examined from day to day and any suspected typhoid 
colonies were inoculated into the Hiss medium. The colonies which 
in the medium proved to be nonmotile bacteria or which produced 
gas were thrown aside. The motile colonies which showed no gas 
were then tested with the serum of the immunized horse. In all the 
experiments it was found that although during the first twenty-four 
hours the total number of bacteria increased greatly the typhoid 
bacilli could still be detected. Then a decrease would set in, and in 
no case were the typhoid bacilli found after a period of three days. 
The results of the experiments with the two types of sacks were prac¬ 
tically the same. The parchment sacks were examined for fifteen to 
twenty days, while the examination of the celloidin sacks was limited 
to the number of sacks available, the minimum being eight days. It 
was found that after two weeks’ use the parchment sacks were dam¬ 
aged, and, since in no case were the typhoid bacilli discovered after 
three days, the conclusion was reached that ten days was sufficient 
for each experiment, and this was made the limit for future work. 
(6430-6432.) 


270 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Experiments were also made in which the river water was filtered 
through a Pasteur filter and then plated out to make certain that 
no water bacteria had passed through the filter. Such raw filtered 
river water was inoculated with typhoid bacilli and here also it was 
found that these organisms would not live more than three days. 
Therefore it appears that there is something in this river water itself 
which destroys the typhoid bacilli even if they are not subjected to 
the action of the saprophytes. The witness stated that he brought 
out this point for the reason that in his former testimony he had 
made the statement that the disappearance of typhoid bacilli in 
river water was probably due to the overgrowth of saprophytic bac¬ 
teria, whereas from these later experiments he had concluded that 
the river water itself contains some substances, possibly the excre¬ 
tions of saprophytes, which alone are sufficient to destroy the typhoid 
bacilli within a few days. Experiments were also made by inoculat¬ 
ing a typhoid bacillus into boiled river water. In these experiments 
the bacillus lived three days longer than it did in the raw filtered 
water. (6432.) 

The witness described another experiment in which he added to 
the water from a parchment sack immune serum from a horse and 
collected the precipitate in a conical glass tube and added to this 
precipitate peptone solution, the object being to concentrate the 
bacteria so that any typhoid bacilli which had escaped detection by 
the other method might be discovered. Although unsuccessful in 
this instance, owing no doubt to the fact that all the typhoid bacilli 
had been discovered by the previous treatment, the witness stated 
that he considered this a very valuable method in finding the typhoid 
bacilli, because larger quantities of water can be used. The immune 
serum agglutinates the bacilli but will not kill them, and they are 
precipitated and can be grown again on agar plates. (6433.) 

The witness said that as a result of the experiments conducted by 
Professors Jordan and Russell and himself, it was his opinion that 
typhoid bacilli can not live in the drainage canal, Chicago River, or 
Illinois River for more than three days, and therefore those dis¬ 
charged from the Chicago sewers can not live to reach the intake of 
the St. Louis waterworks at Chain of Rocks and thereby constitute 
a menace to the citizens of St. Louis. (6437.) 

During all Ids examinations the witness had found Illinois River 
to be less polluted, bacteriologically, than either the Mississippi or 
the Missouri. Consequently the effect of the addition of the Illinois 
River water at Grafton would undoubtedly be a tendency to improve 
the condition of Mississippi River and of the mixture of waters enter¬ 
ing the intake tower of the St. Louis waterworks. In conclusion, the 
witness stated that it was his opinion that the contamination dis¬ 
charged into the drainage canal by the city of Chicago would be 


TESTIMONY OF ROBERT S. WESTON. 


271 


bacterially purified before reaching Averyville and therefore he could 
not consider it a menace to the health of the citizens of St. Louis. 
(6441-6442.) 

No new facts were brought out on cross-examination. 


ROBERT SPURR WESTON. 


DIRECT EXAMINATION. 


Robert Spurr Weston, a witness called in behalf of the defendants, 
stated that he graduated at Amherst College in 1891 and for three 
years thereafter was employed as a chemist in commercial work, after 
which he became a student at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
nology and in the University of Berlin; besides this he had been 
engaged as a volunteer worker in the laboratories of the Massachu¬ 
setts and the German Imperial boards of health. In 1895 he was 
connected with experiments on water purification at Louisville and 
subsequently with similar experiments at West Superior, Wis., and 
Washington, D. C. In 1900 he was in charge of the water-purifica¬ 
tion station at New Orleans and conducted an investigation lasting 
eight months to determine the feasibility of purifying the Mississippi 
River water. (6869-6870.) 

The witness stated that he was well acquainted with the drainage 
area of Mississippi River above New Orleans, and presented a table 
showing the distances above that city of cities lying tributary to Mis¬ 
sissippi River, as follows: 


Distances above New Orleans of cities tributary to Mississippi River. 


Miles. 

Baton Rouge, La. 132 

Natchez, Miss. 265 

Vicksburg, Miss. '366 

Memphis, Tenn. 735 

Cairo, 111. 965 

Louisville, Ky. 1, 305 


Miles. 

Cincinnati, Ohio. 1,415 

Pittsburg, Pa. 1, 875 

St. Louis, Mo. 1, 159 

Mouth of Missouri River. 1, 165 

St. Paul, Minn..... 1,823 


The United States census for 1900 shows that the population in 
cities and towns containing more than 4,000 inhabitants in Mississippi 
Valley is about 9,000,000. The witness then presented some data 
concerning the amount of sewage discharged into the different rivers 
which make up the drainage area. He assumed that cities which 
have a population of 25,000 and over will discharge 175 gallons of 
sewage per capita per day, and that the remainder of the urban 
population—that is, in cities of 4,000 to 25,000 inhabitants—will 
produce 100 gallons of sewage per capita per day. This assumption 
was based on the general water supply. According to a table pre¬ 
pared by John R. Freeman, in a report concerning the water supply 
of the city of New York, the large cities of the country consume about 














272 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


100 gallons of water per capita per day, and 75 gallons per day is 
added for sewage from the streets for ground water flowing into the 
sewers and for contaminated water from other sources. In smaller 
cities the daily consumption is approximately 60 gallons per capita, 
and as a large percentage of these cities are not sewered a corre¬ 
spondingly smaller estimate must be made for the difference between 
the amount of water consumed and the amount of sewage produced. 
Taking all the above into consideration, the witness estimated that 
the amount of sewage from large cities—that is, those above 25,000 
population—is 1,174,250,000 gallons per day, and from the remainder 
of the urban population 342,000,000 gallons per day, making a total 
of 1,516,250,000 gallons. This amounts to a flow of 2,310 cubic feet 
per second at New Orleans. The volume of the river at New Orleans 
being taken into account the maximum dilution is 1 part of sewage 
to 586 parts of water; the minimum, 1 of sewage to 83 of water, and 
the average, 1 of sewage to 296 of water. Expressed as cubic feet per 
second of sewage per thousand of population the maximum is 150, 
the minimum 21, and the mean 75; and as gallons of water per day 
per capita of the urban population the maximum is 16,160, the mini¬ 
mum 2,262, and the mean 8,190. (6870-6873.) 

The witness then presented Table 83, showing the composition of 
Mississippi River water at New Orleans from December, 1900, to 
August, 1901, based on the chemical and bacteriological data. 
(6877.) 

With reference to the figures in Table 83 the witness stated that 
the analyses, apart from the nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites, show 
that the water is characteristic of the nonpolluted water for the region. 
An abundance of oxygen is always present, showing that the organic 
matter has been decomposed, while the number of bacteria is very 
low, and they are chiefly associated with the suspended matter. 
Tests were made for Bacillus coli communis during the flood season; 
that is, from December, 1900, to April, 1901. The volumes used for 
these tests varied from 1 to 300 c. c., and the bacilli were found only 
on three occasions during the five months, all during the first week 
in December. The presence of the organisms at this time only is 
explained by the fact that on the bank of the river immediately above 
the intake of the water-purification station where the samples were 
taken a number of house-boat men and squatters were quartered. 
The feces deposited by them on the bank during the low-water season 
were probably washed into the river at the time of high water, and 
this would account for the presence of B. coli in the samples. In all, 
100 tests were made during the five months, and the general absence 
of B. coli communis leads to the conclusion that no unpurified sewage 
was present in Mississippi River at New Orleans. (6878-6879.) 


Table 83.— Composition of Mississippi River water at New Orleans, December, 1900, to August, 1901. 


TESTIMONY OF ROBERT S. WESTON. 


273 


August. 

29.6 

161 

11 

2.9 

.046 

.032 

00 

o 

.005 

.001 

.13 

8.3 

98 

226 

327 

10.2 

33 

0 

5.9 

910 

July. 

29.3 

515 

11 

7.1 

.055 
. 167 

. 222 

tO rH 

O Q CO 

O O rH 05 

* oo^ hn 

rH oo 00 CM 

rH IQ 

00 

o 

18.6' 

47 

13 

6.7 

1,835 

June. 

to to 
^ 05 

O LO O rH 

tO 05 

CM to 

.240 

TJH O 

O O CM 

OOH00 

' ^ rH CM 05 

rH rH 00 tO CO 

rH ^ 

626 

22.6 

66 

32 

6.0 

2,010 

May. 

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O CO 

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.245 

O O 

O O CM 

O O rH CO 

* 05 0510 r - co 

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H TT 

573 

12.5 

66 

33 

7.0 

2,050 

April. 

13.6 

630 

14 

11.3 

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.358 

.435 

iO rH 
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21 

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3,590 

March. 

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00 00 O 1-H 

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.250 

.013 
.008 
. 11 
10.0 

11 

84 

146 

425 

571 

CO o 

‘O 00 rH o o 

H CO CO rH 05 

rH 

February. 

CO O 
LO 

rH lO O rH 

oo cm co 

.196 

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rH H CM 

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* oo to o ^ 

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January. 

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-18 































































274 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

In connection with the above conclusions the witness stated the 
fact that if the velocity of Mississippi River is assumed to be 4 miles 
per hour, which is neither the maximum nor the minimum, the sewage 
rrom Baton Rouge would reach New Orleans in thirty-three hours, 
showing the rapidity of disappearance of contaminating matter in the 
river. He then gave the flow of Mississippi River at New Orleans, 
taken from the report of the Mississippi River Commission, as follows: 
Maximum, 1,353,000 cubic feet per second; minimum, 191,000 cubic 
feet per second; mean, 685,000 cubic feet per second. (6879.) 

The witness then presented a chart based on the computation 
already introduced, showing the relative pollution of Mississippi River 
at various points, with data for determining it. The evidence con¬ 
tained in this chart is given in Table 84. (6883.) 


Ta-ble 84. — Relative pollution of Mississippi River water at various points. 


Point. 

Mean flow 
in second- 
feet. 

Population 
above point. 

Dilution in 
second-feet 
per 1,000 
population. 

New Orleans. 

675,000 
655,000 
579,000 
516,000 
3S3,000 

9,000,000 
8,984,626 
8,913,944 
8,901,358 
8,706,902 

75 
73 ' 
65 
58 
44 

Mouth of Red River. 

Mouth of Yazoo River. 

Mouth of Arkansas River. 

Mouth of Ohio River. 


The witness stated that in the above table no allowance lia'd been 
made for the self-purification of the stream at different points. He 
then presented a chart showing accessions of sewage to Mississippi 
River from Cairo to New Orleans. The data of the chart is contained 
in Table 85. (6887.) 


Table 85. — Sewage contributed to Mississippi River, Cairo to New Orleans. 


District. 

Mean flow 
in second- 
feet. 

U rban 
population 
of district. 

Dilution in 
second-feet 
per 1,000 
urban 
population. 

Dilution in 
second-feet 
per 1,000 
sewered. 

Below Red River. 

675,000 
655,000 
579,000 
516,000 
383,000 

15,374 
70,682 
12,586 
194, 476 

59,900 

11,700 

4,610 

2,710 

44 

43,900 
9,210 
4,610 
2,650 

Below Yazoo River. 

Below Arkansas River. 

Below Ohio River. 

Above Ohio River. 





In discussing the information contained in Table 85 the witness 
stated that the fresh additions of sewage poured into the stream below 
the mouth of Ohio River are very small in amount. In this table, as 
in the preceding one, no allowance had been made for self-purification. 

The witness then introduced into evidence a chart showing the 
relative dilution of flow in cubic feet per second of Mississippi River 
compared with Connecticut and Merrimac rivers. The chart is 
inserted in the record opposite page 6889. It illustrates diagrammat- 
ically the relative dilutions of Mississippi River at Cairo, mouth of 








































TESTIMONY OF ROBERT S. WESTON. 


275 


Arkansas River, mouth of Yazoo River, mouth of Red River, New 
Orleans; of Merrimac River above Lowell, below Lowell, below Law¬ 
rence, and below Haverhill; and of Connecticut River above Holyoke, 
below Holyoke, and below Springfield. The purpose of the diagram 
was to contrast the two Massachusetts streams with the Mississippi. 
No allowance had been made for self-purification. The Massachusetts 
streams receive so much sewage in the form of fresh acquisitions below 
the points of observation that as the sewage proceeds down the rivers 
between the limits named it is in constantly greater proportion, 
while, on the other hand, as sewage is carried down Mississippi River 
below Cairo it is always in increasing dilution, the fresh acquisitions 
never being sufficient to maintain the concentration which exists at 
Cairo. The reasons for this state of affairs are that the Mississippi 
below Cairo is leveed and the population is relatively small. In the 
opinion of the witness there is not the slightest evidence that any 
unpurified sewage exists in the water at New Orleans other than the 
small amount that might occasionallv have been washed in from the 
banks of the stream outside of the levees. (6889-6890.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

On cross-examination the term “unpurified sewage ’ 7 was defined 
by the witness as that sewage which has not undergone the cycle of 
changes which take place when sewage is mixed with an adequate 
quantity of water in a running stream—in other words, sewage which 
has not lost its previous bacteriological character. The main effect 
of dilution is to furnish an adequate amount of oxygen for the oxida¬ 
tion of the organic matter contained in the sewage. This can also be 
obtained by aerating sewage by passing it over dams, though not in the 
same degree. The witness was of the opinion that the element of 
dilution does not have more to do with the small quantities of bacteria 
contained in the waters of Mississippi River at New Orleans than 
other bacterial or chemical elements known in sanitary science, 
because in any other river with which he was acquainted in which the 
dilution of the sewage approximated the dilution at New Orleans he 
had been able, by increasing the volume of the samples taken, to 
demonstrate the presence of Bacillus coli communis, but at New 
Orleans he had been unable to do so. (6890-6892.) 

WILLIAM PITT MASON. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

William Pitt Mason, professor of chemistry in Rensselaer Poly¬ 
technic Institute, New York, was called as a witness on behalf of the 
defendants and stated that he had been connected with the said 
institute for over twenty years and had given particular attention 


276 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


during most of the time to the examination of water for city supplies. 
This work involved especial study of sanitary problems as related to 
water supply, and he had written and published books on the subject. 
He further testified that he had acted in a consulting capacity and 
testified in legal cases regarding the water supply of many cities and 
towns in the United States. He had also examined the water sup¬ 
plies of many foreign cities. He was acquainted with the literature 
bearing on the subject of typhoid-fever epidemics and had made 
examinations involving study of such epidemics in Bath and Water- 
ville, Me.; Cohoes, Albany, and Buffalo, N. Y.; and other places. 
He had also made some study of Asiatic cholera in Sicily and Italy. 
(6903-6906.) 

The witness then stated that he had examined and studied the bac¬ 
terial, and chemical analyses of the waters of Lake Michigan, the 
drainage canal, and Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers as made 
by Professors Jordan, Palmer, Gehrmann, and Burrill; had taken 
a journey by boat from the water front to Lockport down the drain¬ 
age canal by daylight, and had followed the course of the river by 
trolley and train as far as La Salle, where he took a steamer and went 
by daylight to St. Louis, tying up at night so that no places were 
passed in the dark. (6907.) 

The hypothetical question concerning Doctor Ravold’s experiment 
with 107 barrels of culture of Bacillus j)rodigiosus, already cited, was 
given to the witness and in reply he stated that in view of the large 
number of bacilli introduced into the canal, the small number found 
showed a very considerable death rate of the germ and, by inference, 
at least as large a death rate of the bacillus of typhoid fever under 
the same circumstances. (6908-6910.) 

With reference to the longevity of the typhoid bacillus witness 
stated that it may remain alive in the human body for many months, 
and in soil at least some weeks and possibly months. In water it 
dies out quickly en masse, although some individual cells, being more 
resistant, may remain alive for a longer period. The character of 
the water affects the longevity. In a relatively pure water the lon¬ 
gevity of the typhoid bacillus is greater than in one where it has to 
fight for existence with saprophytic bacteria. It does not increase in 
nature outside the human body, although it may live saprophytically 
for a period of time varying according to its surroundings. The 
witness stated that the vessels in which laboratory experiments are 
performed, being usually small and of glass, for some reason seem 
to give conditions favorable to the life of the germ. Where the con¬ 
ditions resemble more closely those of nature, as, for instance, where a 
large tank is employed, the length of life of the colon and typhoid 
bacilli does not seem to be so great. He quoted in support of this 
statement some experiments made on Bacillus coli by the Massa- 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM P. MASON. 


277 


chusetts State board of health. The vessel containing the germs was 
a very large one, about 12 feet deep, and was suspended in Merrimac 
River water. Under those circumstances it was found that the lon¬ 
gevity of the colon bacillus was limited to eleven days. It was his 
belief that the typhoid bacillus would live in the water of the drain¬ 
age canal and Desplaines and Illinois rivers for a shorter period of time 
than in sterilized water or water of greater purity from a bacteriological 
standpoint, and that its life would be limited to a few days. (0910-6912.) 

If a river is intercepted by dams they will increase the opportu¬ 
nity for sedimentation, although not to an important extent. He did 
not believe that the amount of improvement obtained through the 
influence of the dams in Illinois River was very great, although it 
undoubtedly amounted to something. The great factor of sedimen¬ 
tation in Illinois River is the slope of the stream, especially in high 
stages, when the water overflows its banks and settles back to the 
right and left so that great areas of quiescent water are present and 
sedimentation is very marked. (6913.) 

The sedimentation of bacteria was then discussed by the witness, 
who stated that in a clear water they will settle because they have a 
greater specific gravity than the water, though not much greater. 
This settlement is easily interfered with by currents and eddies. If 
the stream in question is turbid, however, the falling particles causing 
turbidity will unquestionably, by attaching themselves to bacteria 
which may be present, drag them down. The clear water from Lake 
Michigan discharged into Illinois River will not affect sedimentation 
there, because there is sufficient turbidity present in the Illinois River 
system to offset it. (6914-6915.) 

With reference to the sanitary significance of dilution the witness 
stated that simple dilution is really purification, in that it diminishes 
the chance that the person who drinks the water, which is supposed to 
be polluted, will thereby contract disease. On the assumption that a 
glassful of water contains 100 typhoid germs, the person drinking it 
would run a risk that may be described by the number 100. Should 
50 per cent of the germs in the water be killed the person drinking 
that water would drink 50 germs and his risk would be half what it 
was before, namely, 50. Should conditions prevail whereby no bac¬ 
teria were destroyed but the volume of the stream was doubled by the 
inflow of pure water, then a person drinking a glassful of the mixture 
would have in his glass 50 germs and his risk would be 50; therefore 
such dilution would be productive of just as much purification as the 
killing of half the disease germs. The addition of Lake Michigan 
water to the sewage of Chicago is a benefit to the sanitary condition of 
Illinois River, considered both from the standpoint of dilution and 
from that of the chemical and bacteriological changes taking place 
therein. (6915-6916.) 


POLLUTION OP KIVEKS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness then expressed the opinion that the water of Illinois 
River does not have any appreciable effect, good or bad, on that of 
the Mississippi, although it is possible that it may slightly improve the 
Mississippi water, because if there is any difference between the Illi¬ 
nois at Grafton, the Mississippi at the same point, and the Missouri 
above its mouth, that difference is in favor of Illinois River. (6917.) 

The witness further expressed the opinion that in his belief typhoid 
bacilli passing'down Illinois River would die before they reached Graf¬ 
ton. He confined this, however, to the great mass of them. It was 
possible, in his opinion, that some specially resistant germs might 
make the journey, but most of the bacilli would perish before the 
Mississippi was reached. The typhoid bacillus will not live as long in 
polluted as in pure water, because in polluted water it has to live in 
the presence of many saprophytic germs, which not only monopolize 
the food supply but produce toxic products that are poisonous to it. 
There would be no material difference between the lengths of time 
that a typhoid bacillus would live in the sediment of a polluted stream 
and in the water of the same stream. The time that the bacillus would 
live in moist soil furnishes no criterion for its longevity in running 
streams; the two cases are not parallel. (6917-6919.) 

If the capacity of a reservoir is equivalent to thirty days’ supply of 
the city which it serves, it is not, according to the witness, to be 
assumed that the water remains stored in the reservoir for thirty da}"s. 
Much depends on its construction. Many reservoirs are of the stand- 
pipe type, receiving their water and discharging it through the same 
orifice. Under such conditions the pumps deliver direct to the mains, 
and the surplus is carried to the reservoir. (6921.) 

With reference to the occurrence of typhoid fever in St. Louis, the 
witness stated that he had noted that for the years 1899 to 1903, inclu¬ 
sive, the deaths from this disease had been reported as uniformly 
increasing, whereas in Chicago they were rather variable, indicating 
that there is no relation between the two places, so far as Chicago sew¬ 
age being a factor in the occurrence of typhoid at St. Louis is con¬ 
cerned. He had noted, also, that the reported deaths from typhoid 
for 1900 on the three great drainage areas, exclusive of Chicago, were 
503, which is more than in the preceding year. This is in accord with 
the reported deaths in St. Louis for 1900, which also showed an increase 
over those in 1899. It is not, however, in accord with the number 
of deaths reported in Chicago, which was smaller than in the pre¬ 
ceding year. (6922-6923.) 

The witness stated that he employed the method of giving the 
typhoid death rate according to the population—the number of deaths 
per 100,000. This is more correct than to give the percentage of 
typhoid deaths to total deaths, which does not enable the sanitarian 
to pass judgment on the conditions in a given city as to whether there 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM P. MASON. 


279 


is an increase or decrease in typhoid fever. Should a certain locality 
have an increase in typhoid and a greater increase in tuberculosis, the 
report from that place would show an improvement in typhoid condi¬ 
tions, whereas the case would be quite the reverse. (6923-6924.) 

He then presented a series of charts showing the deaths from 
typhoid fever in St. Louis and Chicago during each month of 1900 to 
1903, inclusive. Inasmuch as by reason of the remoteness of one city 
from the other, an outbreak of typhoid fever in Chicago would not be 
reflected in St. Louis until the following month, the St. Louis tables 
were compiled one month in advance; that is, the February deaths in 
St. Louis were plotted against the January deaths in Chicago, and so 
on. The witness pointed out, in reviewing the evidence contained in 
these charts, that there is no parallelism in the curves representing the 
death rates in the two cities. In many instances the rise of the curve 
for Chicago is coincident with the falling of the curve for St. Louis, 
demonstrating absolutely that the one is independent of the other. 
(6925-6932.) 

The witness presented a chart prepared from Professor Jordan’s 
data, showing in graphic form the number of times that Bacillus coli 
communis was found in Illinois River at Pekin, Averyville, and Graf¬ 
ton; in Missouri River at Fort Beliefontaine, and in Mississippi River 
at Grafton, and at the intake tower, Missouri shore, midstream, and 
Illinois shore, Chain of Rocks, when operating on volumes *of water 
varying from 0.001 to 1 c. c., and pointed out that according to the 
occurrence of this organism the following was the proper order of 
purity: Illinois River at Grafton, Mississippi River at Grafton, Illinois 
River at Averyville, Missouri River at Fort Belief ontaine, Mississippi 
River at the intake, Chain of Rocks, and Illinois River at Pekin. 
With reference to the sanitary significance of the colon bacillus deter¬ 
mination, the witness stated that inasmuch as this bacillus is a con¬ 
stant inhabitant of the human intestine it is a valuable indicator of 
the presence in the water of intestinal discharges, although it bears no 
evidence as to whether those discharges came from a healthy or a 
diseased person. When this germ is found persistently in small quan¬ 
tities of water, such water is looked on with more suspicion, the pre¬ 
sumption being that where B. coli communis is so constantly present 
disease germs may be associated with it. While it is true that this 
bacillus is widely distributed and can generally be found if enough 
water is examined, it is considered important to have some notion as 
to the volume of water examined in order to obtain an idea of the 
number of these germs present in the water. (6934-6935.) 

As bearing on the importance of noting the interval of time elapsing 
between the infection of a water supply and the drinking of the 
infected water the witness presented the results of his review of 205 
British epidemics. He had divided them into three portions—those 


280 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


produced by well water, those produced by stream and reservoir 
water, and those produced by milk. There were a few out of this num¬ 
ber that could not be so classified, and they were left out of considera¬ 
tion. In 33 epidemics due to stream and reservoir water the death 
rate was 9.85 per cent of the cases; in 75 epidemics due to well water 
the rate was 11.83 per cent; and in the 20 epidemics due to milk the 
percentage of deaths was 12.79, showing that a well-water epidemic is 
distinctly more serious in character than one caused by stream water 
that had carried the typhoid germ for some distance from the point of 
infection to the point where the water was used for drinking. He fur¬ 
ther cited an examination which he had made of 357 cases of typhoid 
fever at Waterville, Me., where he was able to follow the course of each 
case and to obtain the physician’s statement as to whether it was severe 
or not. Some of these patients used the city water supply from a con¬ 
taminated stream, others used water from contaminated wells, and 
some used both sources. Among those who used city water only 
41.41 per cent were severe cases, but among those using well water 
61.29 per cent were severe cases, thus showing that the fever produced 
by city water was a mild type. The witness’ explanation of that 
was that in a river the typhoid germ had to struggle for existence 
under adverse conditions and was not capable of producing so much 
poisonous material when it found its seat of infection in the patients. 
(6936-6937.) 

Taking into consideration the 4,846 wells in use in St. Louis, to¬ 
gether with the fact that in 1895 the city^ chemist had condemned all 
he had examined, namely, 59, the witness stated that lie believed the 
water of those wells was responsible for a portion of the typhoid of 
St. Louis, because he considered there was greater danger in water 
from a polluted well than from a polluted stream. If, however, the 
typhoid conditions in St. Louis during the last ten years are in part 
attributable to the city water, it was his opinion that when there is 
typhoid fever at places on the drainage area of Missouri River and 
Mississippi River above Grafton, nearer in point of time than Chicago, 
such places would be dangerous and undoubtedly the cause of the 
disease. (6937-6939.) 

The witness was of the opinion that the typhoid bacillus lying in the 
sediment of a polluted stream for a period of thirty to sixty days 
would not be able to retain its dangerous qualities and produce 
typhoid fever when discharged from the bottom of the river. He did 
not know of any instance recorded in the literature of bacteriology 
where one had lived for a period of one to three years. (6939-6941.) 

He then stated that the water of Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks 
was not, either before or after the opening of the drainage canal, fit for 
domestic purposes in its raw state, and expressed the same opinion 


TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM P. MASON. 


281 


with reference to Illinois River at Grafton, although he thought the 
water had been improved since the opening of the canal. (6943-6944.) 

The witness then gave opinions in disagreement with those of Pro¬ 
fessor Sedgwick, which were noted in connection with the testimony 
of Professor Jordan (p. 257). He made the observation that epi¬ 
demics of typhoid fever due to infected water do not usually take 
place after great floods such as would result in the washing out of 
typhoid germs from the sediment of the stream, as claimed by Pro¬ 
fessor Sedgwick, and he cited the Hudson Valley as an instance where 
there are high floods in the spring resulting from melting snows, but 
the epidemics do not occur at that time of the year. In such cases as 
that of Tees River the conditions were quite different, inasmuch as 
there were great deposits of fecal matter in privies and in heaps along 
the shore which were washed off during high water and caused typhoid 
fever. But with the conditions prevailing in the Illinois River basin 
such a thing would not be possible. (6947.) 

The witness then stated that he had information pertaining to the 
Detroit epidemic, given to him at the time by Prof. Gardiner S. Wil¬ 
liams, but that he had always had doubt concerning the connection 
between the disease in Detroit and the dredging of Black River. 
With reference to the germs of Asiatic cholera and the liability of 
infection reaching St. Louis, should that disease become prevalent in 
Chicago, the witness stated that the germs would have greater diffi¬ 
culty in finding their way than the typhoid germs, because the latter 
were more hardy. (6951.) 

In his opinion, the discharge of Chicago sewage by way of the drain¬ 
age canal and the Illinois River system would not cause any additional 
expense in the purification of Mississippi water by filtration, should 
such a system be set up at Chain of Rocks. (6956-6957.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The cross-examiner endeavored to show by a series of hypo¬ 
thetical questions a parallelism between the persistence of Bacillus 
prodigiosus emptied into the drainage canal and isolated from water 
collected at the Chain of Rocks intake and a similar presumable 
typhoid infection, and drew from the witness the opinion that if 
hourly examinations of the water at Chain of Rocks covering a period 
of one month should disclose the presence of typhoid bacilli on three 
occasions such water would unquestionably be infected with the dis¬ 
ease. Pursuing this line the cross-examiner sought to discover why, 
if such were the case, the persistence of B. prodigiosus under like con¬ 
ditions, as related in the testimony of Doctor Ravold, would not show 
a parallelism, and therefore indicate that the water at St. Louis was 
polluted by the Chicago sewage. The witness replied that in his 


282 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


opinion a water sampled at Chain of Rocks 720 times during the month 
with the identification of typhoid bacilli only twice would certainly 
be shown to contain typhoid infection, but not to such an extent as to 
be prejudicial to the city supply provided it was filtered before being- 
used. (6957-6958.) 

Summing up his opinion on the longevity of typhoid bacilli and 
taking into consideration the various detrimental factors naturally 
occurring in streams, the witness stated that the germs of typhoid 
fever from Chicago sewers would be destroyed en masse b} r the time 
the mouth of Illinois River was reached, although some resistant 
organisms might get beyond that point. They would, however, be 
small in number and low in vitality. The longevity of a typhoid 
bacillus depends, in the first place, on its parentage and next on the 
conditions under which it is grown. For example, a person may 
come from a healthy parentage and live in a healthful manner, but 
because of adverse conditions his vitality may be greatly lowered. 
In the same way the typhoid germ might struggle for existence over 
long periods of time, but would lose its vigor and be incapable of pro¬ 
ducing its normal amount of infection. It is, however, impossible to 
determine the longevity of specially resistant cells. It is probable 
that such cells are at the time of their departure from the human 
body more capable of producing disease than the greater numbers of 
less resistant organisms with which they start on their journey. 
Whether, after the interval that may be chosen for the period of inves¬ 
tigation, they arrive in a condition to produce disease, may be open to 
question, because the mere fact that they are resistant and have 
arrived in a living condition does not mean that they will have enough 
toxin-producing powers left to produce that serious poison that may 
cause disease. All this is, however, a matter of speculation. 
(6958-6962.) 

If a gallon of typhoid dejecta were deposited in the waters of Lake 
Michigan at a point free from sewage contamination, the typhoid 
bacteria would disappear, because they would be surrounded by 
myriads of ordinary saprophytic bacteria, which would set up condi¬ 
tions prejudicial to the life of the typhoid germs, although it is true 
that the life of the latter would be increased somewhat, but at all 
events they would disappear before the ordinary sewage saprophytes 
would. While it is true that the longevity of the ordinary sapro¬ 
phyte depends in a large measure on its environment and it dies as 
soon as its part in the purification of the water is finished and its food 
supply is gone, its disappearance takes place subsequent to that of the 
typhoid germ, because the latter is merely a foreigner in that locality 
and has no purpose to fulfill. (6963-6964.) 


TESTIMONY OF LEONARD P. KINNICUTT. 


283 


In analyzing the relationship between the typhoid fatality in St. 
Louis and Chicago the witness merely accepted the facts without ref¬ 
erence to the temperature of the water, the variable physical condi¬ 
tions, or anything that happened between the two cities. Were there 
no Illinois River in existence, the facts would stand, and nothing is 
shown in the charts which enters into the question of longevity of the 
specific germ in passing down the stream between the two points. 
In the opinion of the witness such conditions are immaterial, because 
the typhoid figures are based on actual occurrence. (6969-6970.) 

Taking into consideration all the facts with reference to the dis¬ 
charge of Chicago sewage in Illinois River, the witness stated that in 
his opinion some of the colon bacilli in the water at Averyville come 
from the Chicago drainage canal, but he w-as unable to state the pro¬ 
portion. (6972.) 

The total number of deaths in St. Louis from 1890 to 1903, inclu¬ 
sive, was then recited to the witness, together with the recorded num¬ 
ber of deaths from typhoid fever, and he was asked if it would in his 
opinion make any difference in the interpretation of such data 
whether the deaths were expressed as rate per 100,000 persons living 
or as percentage of typhoid deaths to total, to which he replied: 
“Basing my reply on the numerical data submitted in the question, 
it is my opinion that there is no material difference between the two 
methods of stating the result.” (6973-6974.) 

LEONARD P. KINNICUTT. 

Leonard P. Kinnicutt, called as a witness on behalf of the defend¬ 
ants, stated that he was director of the chemical department of the 
Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Mass. He graduated 
from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1875, with the 
degree of bachelor of science. He studied in the University of Heidel¬ 
berg for two years thereafter, under the direction of Professor Bunsen, 
and for two years at the University of Bonn, Germany, in the labo¬ 
ratory of Professor Kekule. He then studied for four months at 
Johns Hopkins LTniversity and later at Harvard University, where 
he obtained the degree of doctor of science. He was then appointed 
instructor of chemistry at Harvard University, and three years after- , 
wards was called to the Worcester Polytechnic Institute. He was 
consulting chemist to the Connecticut sewage commission. For 
fifteen years he had been a fellow in the American Societv lor the 
Advancement of Science, and was a member in several American, 
English, and German professional societies. He had made a special 
study of sanitary problems since 1882, including the chemical and 
bacterial analysis of water, together with the interpretation of such 
results. He had been called to pass on the quality of water supplies 


284 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

in numerous cities. He had made a study of the typhoid bacillus as 
related to water supplies and of the colon bacillus in the determination 
of the potability of water. He had thoroughly examined the physical 
conditions of Chicago River, the drainage canal, and Desplaines and 
Illinois rivers and had made extended investigations on the problem 
of sewage disposal, especially that of purification by means of septic 
tanks. It was his practice to go to England every other year to 
study the sewage-disposal systems there and the progress made irom 
time to time. (7336-7339.) 

The witness described the septic tank and the process of purifica¬ 
tion which takes place therein, and discussed the sewage-disposal 
problem in some detail. He then gave the results of his observations 
on the Chicago drainage canal, and compared it to a septic tank. 
ITe stated that as he passed along the canal in a truck boat, lie ob¬ 
served the indications of septicity therein. He noted that gas was 
being given off from the liquid at the upper end of the canal, typ¬ 
ical of septic-tank gas, and that after passing Lemont the odor 
changed to that of the effluent of a sedimentation tank. He then pre¬ 
sented a series of tables to bring out these facts. The data in table 
86 were taken from the results of examinations by Professors Jordan^ 
Palmer, and Long, and show the comparative conditions at the upper 
and lower ends of the canal. (7340-7348.) 


Table 86. —Analyses showing changes in the character of sewage during its passage 
through the Chicago drainage canal , being the mean of results obtained by Professors 
Jordan , Long , and Palmer. 

[Parts per million.] 


Constituents. 

Kedzie and 
Western 
avenues. 

Lock- 

port. 

Parts re¬ 
moved. 

Per cent 
removed. 

Solids: 

Total. 

207.0 

200.7 

6.3 

3.0 

Soluble. 

179.2 

184. 4 

+5.2 

+ 2.9 
41.3 

Suspended... 

27.8 

16.3 

11.5 

Oxygen consumed: 

Total. 

7.93 

6.26 

1.67 

21 0 

Soluble. 

4.77 

4.63 

. 14 

2.9 

Suspended. 

3.16 

1.63 

1.53 

48. 4 

Nitrogen: 

Free ammonia. 

1.20 

1.57 

+ .37 

+30.8 
22. 4 

Total albuminoid ammonia. 

.58 

.45 

. 13 

Nitrites. 

.050 

.23 

.024 

.026 

52.0 

Nitrates. 

.097 

. 133 

57.8 

Albuminoid ammonia (mean of Jordan’s and Palmer’s 
results, Long not determining soluble and suspended 
albuminoid ammonia): 

Total. 

.48 

.37 

. 11 

22.9 

Soluble. 

.20 

.28 

. 165 

.035 

17.5 

Suspended. 

.205 

.075 

26.7 































TESTIMONY OF LEONARD P. KINNICUTT. 285 

Table 87. Comparative action of the septic tank and the Chicago drainage canal on 

removal of sewage. 


[Per cent removed.] 


Constituents. 

Bir¬ 

ming¬ 

ham. 

Exeter. 

Leeds. 

Man¬ 

chester. 

Worces¬ 
ter (Kin- 
nicutt, 
1900- 
1901). 

Lowell 

(Clark, 

1900- 

1901). 

Drainage 

canal. 

Solids: 








Total. 

26.0 

24 

34 

27 

22 


3 0 

Soluble. 

8.0 

7 

12 

15 

21 


+ 29 

Suspended. 

60.0 

eo 

70 

57 

26 


41.3 

Oxygen consumed: 







Total. 

33.6 




36 

45 

21 0 

Soluble. 

25.4 




29 


2 9 

Suspended. 

57.1 




44 


48.0 

Nitrogen: 








Free ammonia. 

+ 24 


22 


+ 20 

o 

+32 7 

Albuminoid ammonia. 

41.6 

17 

59 


33 

55 

21.8 

Albuminoid ammonia: 








Total. 





33 


22. 8 

Soluble. 



1 

8 


17.5 

Suspended. 



1 

43 


26.7 




1 





Commenting on the above tables, the witness stated that if analy¬ 
ses are made of crude sewage and of effluents from the septic tank 
it is found that the amount of free ammonia in the effluent is greater 
than in the sewage, but the amount of total or soluble albuminoid 
ammonia is less in the effluent. The nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites 
is very small in the effluent as well as in the sewage, but there is a 
reduction in both. The results in the tables indicate very strongly 
that septic action has taken place during the passage through the 
canal of water containing sewage, as is shown by the increase in 
free ammonia and oxygen consumed. The results agree in other 
general characteristics with those that have been obtained from sep¬ 
tic tanks at various places, as shown in Table 87. In other words, 
the canal has a purifying effect and renders substances that still 
remain in the sewage more easily acted on when they are discharged 
into the river. The purification of the sewage by the canal consists 
of the removal of a part of the solid matter by throwing some of it 
down to the bottom of the canal and by changing some of it to gases. 
Very little work has been done with reference to the effect of the 
septic tank on bacterial life. The second report of the royal com¬ 
mission on sewage disposal of Great Britain quotes experiments made 
in Manchester, England, showing that the Bacillus coli communis 
diminishes during the septic period, and the same effect must be felt 
by the similar and more delicate bacteria such as that of typhoid 
fever. Similar results are shown at Leeds. The witness’s opinion 
was that the septic tank reduces the number of B. coli and the more 
delicate pathogenic germs, and that the total number of bacteria is 
diminished by 10 or 15 per cent. (7348—7350.) 

The witness then took up in detail the results of examinations 
presented in evidence by Professors Jordan, Palmer, Burrill, Zeit, 
















































2S6 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


and Long, assembling the data according to the average determina¬ 
tions and according to various combinations in many tallies and 
charts and discussing in connection therewith the significance of the 
results. This discussion appears in the record, pages 7354-7446. 

In his final summing up of the evidence contained in the tables 
and charts just referred to, the witness stated that about 20 per cent 
of the organic matter discharged into the drainage canal from the 
sewers of Chicago disappears in the canal, this percentage being 
measured by both the loss in albuminoid ammonia and the loss in 
oxygen consumed. A certain amount of suspended matter also is 
removed and further amounts are rendered soluble and converted 
into gases. This not only purifies a part of the sewage, but changes 
the remainder so that further purification will take place more easily 
on its discharge into Desplaines River. Undoubtedly, in the upper 
stretches of the river near Joliet, both aerobic and anaerobic action 
are taking place. Farther downstream—at Ottawa, for example— 
the action is principally aerobic, and in both 1899 and 1900 this 
point was the center of the zone of greatest decomposition. Puri¬ 
fication continues until Avervville is reached. Below Peoria the 
process is repeated, until at Grafton all the original organic matter 
which was in the river at Pekin has been decomposed and changed. 
The effect of emptying the sewage of Chicago into Desplaines River 
is to increase the amount of organic matter in the upper stretches, 
but such addition is not noticed at Averyville except in the increased 
nitrogen contained in the river. At Grafton the effect of the addi¬ 
tion of sewage to Illinois River can be seen onlv in the high chlorine 
and nitrogen as nitrates. This nitrogen is very different from that 
at or above Ottawa, having been changed over and over again from 
its original character. The chart representing Illinois River, May to 
August, 1899 and 1900, before and after the opening of the drainage 
canal, shows that the purification took place in almost exactly the 
same way during those two periods. Such nitrogen and chlorine as 
are found in the river at Grafton are not in the slightest degree dan- 
gerous to public health and can have absolutely no effect on the 
human system. (7446-7449.) 

The witness stated that he had studied the determinations of 
Bacillus coli communis given in the testimony of Professor Jordan 
and also the experiments on the viability of typhoid germs made by 
Professors Jordan, Russell, and Zeit, and as a result thereof was 
convinced that no deleterious matter persisted down Illinois River 
as far as Grafton. All the data that he had examined showed that 
the water at Grafton does not contain undecomposed matter, and it 
was therefore his opinion that the water of Mississippi River at the 
Chain of Rocks intake had not been made less valuable for drinking 


TESTIMONY OF LEONARD P. KINNICUTT. 287 

purposes or more liable to carry water-borne diseases than before 
the opening of the drainage canal. He considered that an increased 
speed of Illinois River caused by the addition of water from the 
drainage canal would not have any effect in increasing or diminish¬ 
ing the number of typhoid germs or the liability to typhoid and 
other water-borne diseases on the part of the inhabitants of St. Louis. 
(7449-7450.) 

The witness then expressed his disagreement with Professor Sedg¬ 
wick’s statement that the typhoid germ may live in sewage-polluted 
streams for weeks, months, or even years, because all the experi¬ 
ments with which he was familiar showed that the typhoid germ 
will live a shorter time in polluted water than in pure water. He 
further disagreed with Professor Sedgwick by stating his belief that 
a typhoid bacillus would not live from the time it left the Chicago 
sewers until it entered slack waters at Peoria, and that even should 
it survive the passage to this point and be deposited upon the bed 
of Lake Peoria, it would not live for a period of a month in such a 
deposit. In this connection he cited an experiment described in the 
Thirty-fourth Annual Report of the Massachusetts State board of 
health, in which polluted water Avas allowed to stand in a large 
storage reservoir without further pollution and the colon bacilli rap¬ 
idly decreased and none were found after eleven days. He also dis¬ 
agreed with Professor Sedgwick’s statement that the waters leaving 
Lake Peoria would at times, by reason of the accumulation of bac¬ 
teria in the lake, be more infectious than those discharged from the 
Bear Trap dam, and declared that he knew of no evidence, scientific 
or other, that would show that germs of typhoid fever would remain 
upon the bottom of streams, lakes, or slack-water basins for a long 
period and then be washed out in a virulent state and be dangerous 
to people consuming the water. (7451-7453.) 

The witness stated that the analytical evidence presented by the 
defendants showed that Mississippi and Illinois rivers above Grafton 
contain practically the same amounts of impurity and that Missouri 
River at Fort Beliefontaine contains a much larger amount than either 
of the others. Therefore the mixing of the waters of the first two 
streams with that of the Missouri would improve it as a water supply 
for St. Louis. (7459.) 

In the opinion of the witness, the water of Mississippi River at the 
Chain of Rocks intake was not suitable for drinking purposes in its 
raw state, either before or after the opening of the Chicago drainage 
canal. (7462-7463.) 

The cross-examination was waived. 




t 


\ \ 


288 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


THEOBALD SMITH. 


Theobald Smith, a witness on behalf of the defendants, stated that 
he was a professor in the Harvard Medical School and pathologist of 
the State board of health of Massachusetts, which position he had held 
since 1895. Prior to that he was bacteriologist in charge ol the inves¬ 
tigations of the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department 
of Agriculture, and at the same time professor of bacteriology in the 
medical department of Columbian University. He graduated from 
Cornell University in 1881, spent two years in the study of medicine at 
Albany Medical College, spent six months in special work at Cornell, 
and went to Washington in the fail of 1883. He had become inter¬ 
ested in the bacteriology of water in 1886, when he made observations 
on Potomac River, and in 1891 he was engaged lor a number of months 
on a sanitary survey of Hudson River between Schenectady and 
Albany. During the year previous to the date of testimony he was 
engaged in looking over the bacteriological and general sanitary status 
of Charles River basin, around Boston. During all this period of inves¬ 
tigation the main question involved had been the bearing of drinking 
water on typhoid fever and other intestinal infections. (7288-7290.) 

The witness then stated that in considering the sanitary condition 
of a water he had taken it for granted that the most important indica¬ 
tion of its pollution would be the presence of fecal matter, because the 
bacilli of typhoid fever, dysentery, Asiatic cholera, and various diar¬ 
rheal diseases are involved, and any test that would indicate the rela¬ 
tive number of these bacteria would bring the observer as nearly as 
possible to an exact determination of the condition of the water. In 
the study of fecal bacteria there is one bacillus of intestinal origin the 
isolation of which affords as accurate a judgment as possible oi the 
sanitary quality of a water. This is Bacillus coli communis, a species 
closely allied to and a probable progenitor of B. typhosus. In view of 
the fact that bacteriological methods are still unsatisfactory in the 
isolation of the typhoid bacillus, it, is not practicable to attempt such 
determinations on a large scale, but the presence of the colon bacillus 
affords information nearly as conclusive. He then described the tests 
for distinguishing between the two organisms. With reference to 
their comparative longevity, he stated that the typhoid bacilli are 
more perishable under a variety of conditions. (7290-7292.) 

The witness defined the bacterial self-purification of streams as a 
reduction in the number of bacteria in a stream, which is not due 
simply to perfect or imperfect sedimentation, but to the complete dis¬ 
appearance or destruction of the bacteria in the water. He did not 
know of any general principles involved, and was of the opinion that 
each stream has certain special local conditions that require investiga¬ 
tion and that depend on a number of factors which vary from stream 
to stream, so that an individual investigation of each stream by itself 


TESTIMONY OF THEOBALD SMITH. 


289 


is necessary. He expressed the belief that the study of Illinois River 
between Chicago and Grafton was the most extensive ever made, and 
laid stress on the examination for B. coli communis as especially appli¬ 
cable to such a problem. (7295-7296.) 

With reference to the failure to find the colon bacillus in Mississippi 
River above New Orleans, the witness stated that the results would 
lead to the belief that all the other closely related bacteria, such as the 
typhoid and dysentery bacilli, had also disappeared. (7296.) 

The typhoid bacillus will not reproduce its kind in ordinary water, 
but will grow rapidly in milk until the milk becomes very acid. In 
general the typhoid bacillus does not increase outside of the human 
body except in favorable culture media. (7297.) 

The witness stated that he would assume, from the data introduced 
in the testimony of Professor Jordan relative to the numbers of colon 
bacilli in the waters of the drainage canal and Illinois, Mississippi, and 
Missouri rivers, that these bacilli had so largely disappeared in their 
passage down Illinois River that they were less numerous in this 
stream at Grafton than in the Mississippi above Grafton or in the Mis¬ 
souri at its mouth. Therefore it would seem to him that the water at 
the mouth of Illinois River was certainly not inferior to that in the 
other two streams, but, on the contrary, more pure. If virulent typhoid 
bacilli should actually pass from Chicago to the mouth of Illinois River, 
such passage would be made according to conditions and laws of which 
the profession knows nothing; but, basing his opinion on the close 
relationship of the colon bacillus to the typhoid bacillus and to this 
entire group of disease germs, he believed that he was justified in stat¬ 
ing that virulent typhoid bacilli would be very largely destroyed 
before reaching Grafton. If a typhoid bacillus should be discovered 
in the water supply of St. Louis or in Mississippi River at Chain of 
Rocks, it would be utterly impossible to identify its source, but the 
presumption would be that it had come from the nearest town dis¬ 
charging sewage. On the whole, the passage of a typhoid bacillus 
from Chicago to St. Louis was entirely out of probability. (7297-7301.) 

The witness then stated that the question concerning the effect of pol¬ 
luted water on the life of the typhoid bacillus is very difficult to answer 
categorically, inasmuch as it depends on the temperature and the 
amount of pollution. It is probable that if the pollution were very 
great the typhoid bacilli under very favorable temperature might begin 
to multiply after a short period of time, and in the course of this multi¬ 
plication would become destroyed, because they would render them¬ 
selves vulnerable to destruction—that is to say, it is possible that sew¬ 
age might offer enough stimulus to these bacteria to induce them to 
multiply and then become destroyed. The history of typhoid epi¬ 
demics had shown that typhoid bacilli can be carried by relatively 


19 


290 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


pure water, as in the epidemics at Ithaca and Plymouth, but whether 
polluted water is a hindrance to the destruction of the bacteria or 
favors it is a question concerning which he did not feel competent to 
make a positive statement. (7301-7303.) 

If it were true that Chicago sewage was the cause of typhoid fever 
in St. Louis, there would be a relationship between the occurrence of 
the disease in the two cities in point of time. The curves diagram- 
matically representing typhoid deaths would be synchronous, although 
the St. Louis curve would be slightly retarded, because of the distance 
between the two cities and the period of incubation of the disease. ITe 
was unable to see any connection between these two cities along this 
line. The upward curve in the St. Louis charts seems to correspond 
with the usual summer and fall increase manifested throughout the 
civilized world, but there is no relation to the occurrence of the disease 
in Chicago. (7303.) , 

Referring to the occurrence of typhoid fever on the three great 
drainage basins above St. Louis, the witness stated that he would not 
consider the St. Louis water fit for public use without previous purifi¬ 
cation, and if he were to attempt to trace out the sources of infection 
in this water he would first look to points nearer than Chicago. 
Because of the vulnerability of the typhoid bacillus in water, the far¬ 
ther away the area of infection the less would be the danger of disease 
originating therefrom. A few bacteria discharged into the stream 
near the intake would be much more dangerous than a large number 
at a much greater distance. (7304.) 

With reference to the experiments of Professors Jordan, Russell, and 
Zeit on the longevity of typhoid bacteria as determined by the use of 
permeable cells, the witness stated that a new factor had been intro¬ 
duced into the problem by this work and that they had defined, for the 
first time, perhaps, the viability of the bacterium in polluted water. 
If the experiments were correct, and he stated that lie felt prepared 
to take the risk of acceptance, it was his opinion that it would be phys¬ 
ically impossible for a typhoid bacillus starting from Chicago to reach 
St. Louis. (7305.) 

No new important facts were brought out on cross-examination. 

ERASTUS G. SMITH. 

Erastus G. Smith, called as a witness on behalf of the defendants, 
stated that he was professor of chemistry at Beloit College, Beloit,Wis., 
and had occupied that position since 1881. He had graduated from 
Amherst College in 1877, and for a year studied under private tutelage. 
He was then called as instructor in chemistry to Williston Seminary at 
Easthampton, Mass., remaining there for three years and then going to 
Beloit College. He took the degree of doctor of philosophy at Georgia 


TESTIMONY OF EEASTUS G. SMITH. 


291 


Augusta University, Germany, in 1883, and had taken a course in bac¬ 
teriology during one summer at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ 
nology. Since 1885 he had given practically all his available time to 
the study of sanitary problems, especially those related to water¬ 


courses. In connection with his studies he had been called to inves¬ 
tigate many public water supplies, including those from both surface 
and underground sources. He had investigated typhoid fever epi¬ 
demics at numerous places and gave extended accounts of each during 
his testimony. In addition to this he had acted as consulting chemist 
in connection with water-filtration plants at Rock Island and Kanka¬ 
kee, Ill.; Ashland, Eau Claire, Oshkosh, and West Superior, Wis.; 
Independence and Burlington, Kans.; Cedar Rapids and Burlington, 
Iowa; Beaver Falls, Pa.; Warren, Ohio; Brooklyn and Binghamton, 
N. Y.; and Denver, Colo. He had also studied filtration systems at 
London, Paris, Antwerp, Berlin, and Hamburg. (6736-6745.) 

The witness stated that he had studied the chemical and bacterial 


analyses of the waters of Lake Michigan, the drainage canal, Des- 
plaines, Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers, as presented in the 
testimony of Professors Jordan, Gehrmann, Palmer, and Burrill, and 
was thoroughly accpiainted with all the bodies of water mentioned. 
He had made a trip from the mouth of Chicago River along the entire 
course as far as Eads Bridge, St. Louis. (6745-6746.) 

The attention of the witness was directed to the Bacillus prodigiosus 
experiment made by Doctor Ravold on behalf of the complainant. He 
stated that this bacillus is an organism not widely distributed in 
nature, although it occasionally does occur. He was not sure whether 
he had found it himself in river waters, but had found a form closely 
allied to it. In his opinion the prodigiosus experiment did not possess 
value with reference to the probable longevity of the typhoid bacillus. 
The longevity of B. prodigiosus is not necessarily a measure of that of 
the typhoid bacillus, and the results of the experiment, on the assump¬ 
tion that the facts as presented by Doctor Ravold are true, do not con¬ 
tribute to the probability that a typhoid bacillus entering the drainage 
canal would find its way to the intake of the St. Louis waterworks. 
On the contrary, it seems highly improbable that such would be the 
case, because, although B. prodigiosus is known to flourish in water 
under ordinary temperature when the proper nourishment is available, 
there is no evidence showing that the typhoid organism flourishes 
under similar conditions. With reference to the experiment itself, the 
witness stated that there was nothing in the results to show that the 
bacilli alleged to have been found were those that were placed in the 
water of the canal, because there is evidence that they are occasionally 
found in natural water. On studying the question, it seemed to him 


292 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


that if these bacilli had remained in the water for any length of time 
they would have been found farther up the river, but no such identifi¬ 
cations were made above Grafton, although they were diligently 
searched for in the water at Joliet. (6747-6750.) 

The presence of the colon bacillus in water is very significant because 
it is the constant inhabitant of the intestinal tracts of man and of most 
domestic animals and is not present, certainly in any number, in a 
natural unpolluted water. There is a question whether some fish do 
not excrete them in small numbers and therefore the colon bacillus 
is occasionally found in an unpolluted water. Under ordinary cir¬ 
cumstances, however, the discovery of this organism in a natural 
water is presumptive evidence that fecal matter as sewage has found 
its way into that water. (6751.) 

According to the work of Doctor Frankland, the typhoid bacillus 
has been observed in water previously sterilized after a period of one 
hundred days, and this may lie taken as the maximum recorded time. 
In unsterilized water it would diminish in numbers and disappear after 
a few days, some records specifying it at six or seven days and some 
as high as twenty-six days. The bacillus does not multiply and 
increase in water. Laboratory conditions are rather more favorable, 
for its longevity than those met with in nature. One of the reasons 
for this is that the glass itself seems to affect the water. There are 
other conditions, such as uniformity of temperature and environment, 
neither of which prevail in a running stream. Experiments show 
that the typhoid-fever germ will not live as long in polluted as in ster¬ 
ilized water, the reason probably being that the organism in polluted 
water is subject to certain enemies, namely, the toxins thrown off by 
the other bacterial forms, as well as the varying conditions of the 
stream. (6752-6753.) 

The witness stated that from such study as he had been able to make 
of the quality of water in the drainage canal and Desplaines and Illi¬ 
nois rivers and from a study of the work of Professor Jordan it was 
his opinion that the duration of life of the typhoid bacillus must be 
brief in those streams, amounting to but two or three days. This he 
believed to be due to the toxic effects on the typhoid organisms of the 
other organisms in the stream. (6753-6754.) 

The effect of the dams erected across Illinois River would naturallvbe 
to increase the amount of sedimentation by bringing the water into a 
more quiescent condition. A high water always tends to increase the 
amount of sediment contained in a river, but the physical surround¬ 
ings of Illinois River compensate for this increase of sediment, because 
during high water the stream overflows and there is an enormous 
amount of sedimentation on the overflowed lands. Bacteria will 
respond to the law of gravity, for they are somewhat heavier than 
water, but this response takes place slowly except in water practically 


TESTIMONY OF ERASTUS G. SMITH. 


293 


quiescent. The tendency of bacteria is downward, however, even in 
a running stream. The settlement of matter in suspension greatly 
assists the sedimentation of bacteria because the organisms fasten on 
the particles of suspended matter and are carried downward. (6754- 
6755.) 

In reply to a question concerning the effect of the discharge of clear 
water from Lake Michigan on the rate of sedimentation in Illinois 
River, the witness stated that the amount passing through the drain¬ 
age canal could not produce a condition of sufficient clearness in the 
river water to preclude the possibility of the opportunity for sedimen¬ 
tation. Even if the entire sewage of Chicago could be diverted into 
the drainage canal and 800,000 cubic feet of water per minute from 
Lake Michigan should pass over the Bear Trap dam the dilution 
caused thereby would not be sufficient to prevent the sedimentation 
of bacteria in the river. (6756.) 

The dilution of the water of a river with another water of pure qual¬ 
ity is one of the well-recognized factors in the problem of self-purifica¬ 
tion of streams. It separates the different micro-organisms, and thus 
diminishes the liability of their being taken into the animal economy. 
Sewage-laden water diluted with water of a better quality is thereby 
rendered less liable to communicate disease by infection. Therefore 
the addition of the pure Lake Michigan water to the Chicago sewage 
improves its quality, because the dangerous micro-organisms in the 
sewage are more widely separated from each other, and also because 
it gives the river greater room for facilitating the sedimentation of the 
solid matter in suspension, thereby decidedly improving the sanitary 
condition of Illinois River from the standpoint of the chemical and 
bacteriological changes taking place. (6757-6758.) 

In the opinion of the witness, it seemed very clear that there is no 
pollution dangerous to public health from the drainage canal persist¬ 
ing in Illinois River as far as Grafton, for the reason that the natural 
conditions of the stream are such as to facilitate the dilution, sedi¬ 
mentation, and oxidation of the sewage matter. In addition to this, 
experimental work shows that the life of the typhoid bacillus in this 
stream probably does not exceed three days. The result of all this is 
that the water of Illinois River at Grafton appears, from all chemical 
and bacteriological standpoints, to be equal in quality to that of tribu¬ 
tary streams in the valley. These conditions would persist even 
in the event of low water in Missouri River at a time when Illinois 
River was in flood stages, because even under such flood conditions 
the purifying agencies would still be effectual. Therefore, in the 
light of all the conclusions above given, the witness stated that the 
sewage from Chicago could not affect the water supply of St. Louis 
nor the waters of the Mississippi as they pass along the border of the 
State of Missouri. (6760-6762.) 


294 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness stated that in his opinion the typhoid bacillus would 
live longer in the sediment at the bottom of a stream than it would in 
the water itself, for the reason that the changes taking place in the 
sediment are not so great nor so constant as in the water. Of course 
a bacterium deposited in such sediment would be affected by the 
same agencies, namely, the.toxic products of other bacteria, as in 
the water of the stream itself, but probably to a less degree, so that 
the absence of these destructive agencies would prolong the life of 
the organism in the sediment of the stream, but not for any great 
length of time. (6764.) 

The witness expressed agreement with Professors Jordan and Rus¬ 
sell in stating that the typhoid organisms would live longer in moist 
earth than in the sediment of a stream, because of the fact that the 
particles of moist soil are separated by thin layers of air, which tend 
to diffuse the toxic agencies of other bacteria less rapidly than water. 
The particles of sediment in the bottom of the stream are all sur¬ 
rounded by water and the conditions of diffusion are practically the 
same as in the water of the stream itself. It was his opinion, how¬ 
ever, that the period during which the typhoid bacillus will live in 
moist earth does not furnish any criterion for its longevity in the 
sediment of a running stream and that the two conditions are in no 
way comparable. (6764-6765.) 

In giving mortality statistics, the witness's preference was for the 
use of the rate per unit of population rather than the mortality per¬ 
centage method, for the same reason as had been expressed by other 
witnesses for the defense. He also thoroughly agreed with Professor 
Russell in his opinion of the danger of typhoid-fever infection from 
rural communities, and gave various cases in which such infection had 
caused epidemics. (6767-6770.) 

With reference to the position occupied by the science of bacteri¬ 
ology in regard to the ascertainment of the purity of river waters, 
the witness stated that it is commonly accepted that diseases are 
caused by certain specific organisms and that among these organisms 
which can be borne by water are those of typhoid fever and cholera. 
These are intestinal diseases, and therefore it is very important to 
determine whether or not fecal matters find access to the water. The 
presence or absence of the intestinal bacteria can be used, therefore, 
as the most important index in determining the purity or impurity of 
the supply. (6770.) 

The witness then stated that the science of chemistry as applied to 
river water has to do with the determination of the presence or 
absence of organic matter in that water. It is necessarv to know the 
chemical constituents of water from a sanitary standpoint and whether 
or not the water contains organic matter. It may or may hot be pos¬ 
sible to determine the bacterial forms present in the water, but the pres- 


TESTIMONY OF ERASTUS G. SMITH. 


295 


once or absence of organic matter can be determined. Another 
application of chemistry is to determine what changes the organic 
matter undergoes after a period of time. A sanitarian could hardly 
form a proper opinion regarding the quality of a river water did he 
not have chemical and bacteriological data on which to base such an 
opinion. As an example of this witness cited the South Platte River, 
at Denver, Colo.—a bright, clear, stream flowing from a mountain 
spring through unoccupied land. The water is entirely satisfactory 
in appearance, but on bacteriological examination is found to be 
polluted with sewage. Chemical evidence is confirmatory of this, and 
it is thereby shown that the water is unfit for domestic consumption 
in its raw state. (6771-6772.) 

In the opinion of the witness, the chemical and bacterial data sub¬ 
mitted by the defendants show that the waters of Illinois River 
have become practically purified of Chicago sewage before reaching 
Peoria, and therefore could not become a menace to the inhabitants 
of the State of Missouri. This being the case, the same would lie true 
at the mouth of Illinois River, and in his opinion the Illinois River 
water at Grafton discloses a smaller amount of impurity than that 
of the Mississippi above the mouth of the Illinois or that of the Mis¬ 
souri above its confluence with the Mississippi. Therefore, if the 
data show that there is a gradual mixing of Illinois River water with 
that of the other two rivers, the tendency would be to improve the 
quality of the combined waters. (6772-6775.) 

The witness then reviewed the facts with reference to sewage pollu¬ 
tion in Mississippi River above the mouth of Illinois River, stating the 
extent to which polluting materials were discharged and their effect on 
Mississippi River water. In his opinion, the Mississippi water is unfit 
for drinking and domestic purposes in its raw state. (6775-6785.) 

With reference to the opinion expressed by Professor Sedgwick, that 
the germs of typhoid fever could lie in the sediment of the drainage 
canal and upon the bottom of Illinois River for a period of one to 
three years and then be washed out and pass down the river in a 
virulent condition, the witness said: 


From the experiments already given upon the life of the typhoid-fever germs in the 
Illinois River after the same has received the sewage of the city of Chicago, from the 
fact that the germs which may have been precipitated to the bottom of the river in 
the sediment of the river would be measurably subject to the same agencies, the same 
tending to its rapid destruction, it is my opinion that there is no probability or possi¬ 
bility of a germ remaining at the bottom of the river for a period of from one to three 


years. I know of no instance on record or in literature where a typhoid bacillus lias 
lived for a period of from one to three years in the sediment of a polluted stream or in 
the water of the same; but on the contrary, the records of all the experiments which I 
have been able to read and from all information I have been able to gather upon the 
subject of the duration of the life of a typhoid-fever germ in a polluted water is that it 
is brief, being limited to that of a few days, six or seven, perhaps, at the outside. 
( 6785 - 6786 .) 


296 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The water from Mississippi River at Chain of Rocks was not prior 
to the opening of the Chicago drainage canal a safe and potable water 
for domestic purposes in St. Louis. The opening of said canal had 
not created any greater necessity for the purification of this water for 
municipal purposes than existed prior to such opening, and in the 
event that a filter should be established at St. Louis the cost of 
operation would not be increased by the discharge of Chicago sewage 
into the Illinois River basin. (6791-6796.) 

The witness then reviewed the analytical data presented by Pro¬ 
fessors Jordan, Long, and Palmer, and introduced into the record and 
discussed tables of averages, his conclusions being the same as those 
already submitted by the above-named witnesses. (6796-6811.) 

In response to leading questions the witness discussed further the 
improbability of there being any damage caused to the St. Louis 
water supply by reason of the discharge of sewage into the Illinois 
River basin, but as the matter is largely repetition it will not be 
reviewed here. (6811-6828.) 

No important new facts appear to have been established on cross- 
examination. 

GEORGE DOCK. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

George Dock, a witness called in behalf of the defendants, qualified 
as an expert by saying that he had been connected with the medical 
faculty of the University of Michigan for thirteen years, and at the 
time of the testimony held the chair of theory and practice of medi¬ 
cine. He graduated from the medical department of the University 
of Pennsylvania in 1884; spent one year after graduation in St. 
Mary’s Hospital, which is situated in and receives the patients from 
the most afflicted typhoid district in Philadelphia. He gave especial 
attention to this disease during his period of service in this hospital. 
He then went to Germany and for two years studied medicine at 
Leipzig, Berlin, Vienna, and Frankfort. During his attendance at 
Leipzig and Berlin typhoid fever was epidemic and excellent oppor¬ 
tunities were afforded him for the study of this disease. Returning 
to Philadelphia, he became connected with the hospital of the Uni¬ 
versity of Pennsylvania, and during the period of his service there lie- 
had an unusually large practice among typhoid-fever cases. At this 
hospital he began the study of malaria, and in order that he might 
have a good opportunity to study that disease lie went to Galveston, 
Tex., and became professor of pathology in the Galveston Medical 
School and physician in the hospital. After his services at Galveston 
he accepted a position at the University of Michigan, where he had 
remained up to the date of the testimony. During the Spanish- 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE DOCK. 


297 


American war he was engaged by the Surgeon-General of the United 
States Army to visit the military hospitals at Chickamauga, Knox¬ 
ville, and Camp Meade, and there added to his already ripe experience 
in the diagnosis of malaria and typhoid fever. (7044-7050.) 

The witness then entered- on a discussion of the diagnostic difficul¬ 
ties in typhoid fever and malaria. He found at Galveston practically 
no typhoid fever reported, but an unusually large amount of malaria, 
nearly all of which proved on examination to be typhoid fever. On 
going to Ann Arbor he found this experience repeated, with the dif¬ 
ference that although he had in Galveston found a few cases of actual 
malaria, he found not a single fatal case among all those reported as 
such in the State of Michigan. (7045-7046.) 

The entire subject of the occurrence of malaria throughout the 
Mississippi Valley had been thoroughly studied by him and he had 
given, special attention in years past to St. Louis by visiting the city 
frequently, inspecting and conferring personally and by letter with 
the physicians there. He found that in St. Louis malaria was very 
rare, and it was likely that nearly all the supposed cases were typhoid. 
(7046-7049.) 

i 

In his examination of the army hospitals in 1898 he found that at 
Chickamauga out of 400 cases diagnosed as malaria there was only one 
actual case, the remainder being typhoid. At Camp Meade there 
were during his period of inspection several hundred cases diagnosed 
as malaria, all of which except one were typhoid, while at Knox¬ 
ville he found not a single case of malaria. (7049-7050.) 


Continuing, lie stated that the terms “intermittent,” “remittent,” 
“typho-malarial,” “congestive,” and “simple continued” fevers were 
entirely unsatisfactory and did not represent specific types and that 
they nearly all mean typhoid fever in the vital statistics reports. 
Malaria appears as remittent and sometimes as intermittent, but so 
does typhoid, and therefore any of the symptoms noted under the 
above terms were not, as specified, all malarial exclusively. (7051- 
7053.) 


Hypothetical questions were then asked, based on a statement of 
the number of deaths reported from typhoid and the malarial dis¬ 
eases, above named, in St. Louis. These figures are given in Table 80 
(p.242). In reply the witness made the following comments: 

From 1895 to 1903 the record shows a steady and gradual increase 
in the number of cases, but no sudden or disproportionate increase. 
Since 1898 there had been a much larger number of typhoid cases 
reported all over the country, owing to an increased knowledge of the 
disease, resulting from the lessons of the war with Spain. At that 
time the attention of the profession generally had been called to the 
diagnostic procedure in typhoid cases, which had resulted in more 


298 


POLLUTION OF RTVEKS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


accurate observations and, consequently, more typhoid reports. 
This explained in a large measure the increase in the number of St. 
Louis cases since 1898. (7054-7055.) 

The witness stated that typhoid tables should contain most, if not 
all, of the so-called “malarial” deaths. The malarial rate shown in 
Table 80 is entirely too high for every year, and the probability of 
these being actual typhoid cases is apparent. As an example, he 
noted the great increase in typhoid in 1890 to 1892 due to specific 
causes and, together with that, the concurrent increase in so-called 
“ malarial' ’ diseases. During that period there was no reason, accord¬ 
ing to the witness, for believing that malaria should rise to so great a 
height, and the increase was undoubtedly due to mistaken diagnosis, 
the cases being really a part of the typhoid epidemic. In addition to 
this, he made the point that fatal malaria or remittent malaria occurs 
rarely above the latitude of Arkansas. North of this parallel nearly 
all the malarial cases are intermittent and almost never fatal. There¬ 
fore the impossibility of so many deaths from malaria at St. Louis 
was evident; they must have been from typhoid fever. The only 
city in the United States showing so much malaria is New Orleans,, 
where conditions for the encouragement of this disease are extraordi¬ 
narily good and where the physicians are subject to the same diag¬ 
nostic errors as in St. Louis. Statistics and his own experience show 
that 50 to 90 per cent of the so-called “malaria ” in the United States 
is really typhoid, and only 2 or 3 per cent actually malaria. (7055- 
7059.) 

On the assumption that all the deaths represented in Table 80 were 
typhoid, there was no marked increase in any one year, although the 
total had gradually increased since 1898, for reasons already explained. 
With reference to Table 79 (p. 241), introduced into evidence 1^ Pro¬ 
fessor Jordan, showing the monthly distribution of deaths from 
typhoid and malarial diseases, the witness stated that it showed even 
more clearly the probability that the most of the so-called “ malarial ” 
diseases were actually typhoid, because so many of the alleged 
malarial deaths occurred during January, February, March, and April. 
No one, in the opinion of the witness, dies of malaria in the latitude 
of St. Louis during those months. Even in the Philippines malaria 
is not fatal throughout the year. The circular letters sent to the 
physicians of St. Louis by the local health commissioner in 1900 and 
1901, calling attention to the fact that the law requires them to 
report cases of deaths from typhoid, would explain the rise that had 
occurred in the last two years. These circulars were issued approxi¬ 
mately at the opening of the Chicago drainage canal, and the result 
would make it appear that the discharge from that canal was respon¬ 
sible for the increase. Nevertheless, the increase was not as great as 


TESTIMONY OF GEORGE DOCK. 


299 


might be expected, and considerably less than had been found to take 
place in other cities in which similar circulars had been sent. (7059- 
7063.) 

The witness considered it especially significant that the number of 
recorded deaths from malarial diseases should have decreased as 
shown by the death table, and he testified strongly to the effect that 
the errors made by physicians in diagnosis had been in a large measure 
corrected and that the cases formerly charged to malarial diseases 
were now to some extent being given their correct designation. 
(7063.) 

Another table was introduced into evidence, showing the population 
and deaths per 100,000 of typhoid fever alone during 1890 to 1893, 
together with the record of typhoid fever, plus 50 per cent of the deaths 
recorded under the heading “ intermittent fever,” etc., and of “ typhoid 
fever,” plus all the deaths recorded under that heading. The witness 
repeated his opinion that such tables showed only the slight increase 
that would be ascribed to increased care in diagnosis rather than to 
any outside conditions. One of the most serious sources of typhoid 
fever in St. Louis, according to the witness, was the water from wells. 
(7064-7066.) 

The following appears in the record, page 7066: 

Q. Assuming that on April 1, 1895, the total number of wells in the city of St. Louis 
was 4,846, and assuming that pursuant to an order of the hoard of health of St. Louis 
directing an examination of these wells, the city chemist, after examining 59 wells, 
condemned them as unsanitary, and assume further that in August, 1895, upon the 
report of the city chemist, condemning 7 more of these walls, the board of health 
of St. Louis passed a resolution that the city should make no further examination of the 
wells in question, and since August, 1895, none of these wells have been condemned, 
what effect would this number of wells in the city of St. Louis have, in your opinion, 
upon the typhoid conditions existing in said city, assuming that the water of these wells 
was used by the inhabitants for drinking and domestic purposes? 

A. It would be a very serious source of typhoid fever. 

In concluding his direct testimony the witness stated his opinion 
that the increase in typhoid fever indicates rather a change in the 
conditions of the city of St. Louis itself rather than in the main 
water supply. If the main water supply comes from the river, a 
change for the worse in the conditions of the river water is always 
indicated by a more marked increase in the disease. As to such an 
increase as was shown here, it is altogether compatible with changing 
local conditions, such as wells, and the ordinary course of typhoid 
epidemics. (7066-7067.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The witness admitted, in response to leading questions, that he 
had never practiced medicine in St. Louis, and that the only investi¬ 
gations of mortality which he had made were those of the figures 


300 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

submitted to him, including a study of the published reports. While 
he would not state that all the physicians in St. Louis were not 
competent to make a distinction between typhoid and malaria, he 
did contend that a large number did not make correct diagnoses. 
(7067-7070.) 

While the witness admitted that the records for typhoid-fever 
deaths showed during the four years prior to the opening of the 
canal an average of 22.8 per 100,000 and during the four years 
immediately following an average of 36 per 100,000, indicating an 
increase of about 74 per cent, this was not what he would call a 
large increase. Although it would be an increase for the town and 
from the standpoint of the people who were sick, it would not neces¬ 
sarily indicate a radical difference in the matter of infection. Where 
a change takes place in the method of infection in a town that 
always has typhoid, the change is much greater than this, usually 
several hundred per cent, and at least more than 100 per cent. For 
example; a difference of seventy-odd per cent might easily occur in a 
place like Chicago or Philadelphia and mean no increase in the 
method of infection. (7073-7077.) 

REDIRECT EXAMINATION. 

On redirect examination the witness objected to observations 
based on averages for the entire four years preceding and the four 
years succeeding the opening of the canal and stated that the 
increase did not occur in a single year, but was spread over a series 
of years. If the 73 per cent had occurred between 1899 and 1900, 
it would be his opinion that there must be a new focus of infection, 
but inasmuch as it was spread over four years, and the ascent was 
gradual, he adhered to his statement that it was not a great increase. 
A correct idea of the increase could be gained only by calculating 
the relationship existing between each year. The percentage for long 
periods is a doubtful one. There might be local conditions in any 
one year that would offset the average too much. In all such speci¬ 
fications there is a very serious error, depending on the compara¬ 
tively limited number of cases considered. (7077-7079.) 

The witness further mentioned the fact that during the years 
1901, 1902, and 1903 the Louisiana Purchase Exposition affected the 
rate, in that the desire was to maintain a low record of typhoid and 
the tendency was therefore to report typhoid fever by some other 
name, so that the increase according to the record was probably not 
as great as the actual increase. (7058.) This was conceded by 
counsel. (7081.) 


TESTIMONY FOR DEFENDANTS. 


301 


LEWELLYS F. BARKER. 

Lewellys F. Barker, called as a witness on behalf of the defend¬ 
ants, stated that he was professor of anatomy in the University of 
Chicago, and had been in charge of that department for three years. 
Previous to going to Chicago he was for nine years associated with 
the medical iaculty of Johns Ilopkins University, being for the first 
year assistant to Prof. William Osier in the department of internal 
medicine, for the next two years a fellow in pathology and bacte¬ 
riology with Prof. William II. Welch, then associate in anatomy 
with Professor Mall, next assistant professor of anatomy, and finally 
associate professor of pathology. He had graduated from the Uni¬ 
versity of Toronto and had served one year as house physician at 
the Toronto General Hospital. During his services in Baltimore he 
was on leave at various periods studying in Germany and on various 
commissions. His first commission was one established by the State 
board of health of Maryland when he and Prof. Simon Flexner were 
sent to study an epidemic of cerebro-spinal meningitis. In 1899 he 
and Doctor Flexner were sent by Johns Hopkins. University to 
study tropical diseases in the Philippine Islands and incidentally the 
epidemics of plague and beriberi in Hongkong, India, and Japan. 
While in Manila he had abundant opportunity for the study of 
typhoid fever, malaria, and acute tropical dysentery. Subsequently 
he was appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury on a commission 
with Professor Flexner, of the University of Pennsylvania, and Pro¬ 
fessor Novy, of the University of Michigan, to study the bubonic 
plague in San Francisco. (7082-7087.) 

The witness stated that the terms remittent, intermittent, typho- 
malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers were all clinical 
rather than pathological and date back to the time when classifica¬ 
tion of diseases had to be made by symptomatology rather than by 
pathology. He defined the various terms and stated that they had 
all been given up by good clinicians at the present time. They all 
represent either typhoid, malaria, or acute tuberculosis, but most 
often they represent typhoid. (7090.) 

The witness presented the St. Louis statistics covering the years 
1890 to 1902, inclusive, giving deaths in which the cause was diag¬ 
nosed as typhoid fever and the total deaths the cause of which was 
diagnosed as the febrile diseases mentioned in the preceding para¬ 
graph. These figures are given in Table 80, in the testimony of 
Professor Jordan (p. 242). He then introduced another table, giv¬ 
ing the St. Louis death rate per 100,000, covering the period from 
1890 to 1893, inclusive, and made some comparisons with similar 
statistics, for Baltimore from 1899 to 1902, inclusive. In discussing 
these tables he stated that the febrile diseases should all be included 


302 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


under typhoid, although some of them might have been acute tuber¬ 
culosis. The addition to the number of deaths from typhoid of those 
from the febrile diseases mentioned would give, in the opinion of the 
witness, a truer typhoid rate than any other statistics available. He 
stated that were the deaths from remittent, intermittent, typho- 
malarial fevers, etc., examined by skilled clinicians they would be 
definitely diagnosed as specific diseases. Unless physicians are 
trained in the most modern methods of diagnosis it is extremely 
difficult for them to decide between cases of malaria and typhoid. 


(7091-7094.) 


The most important clinical test for typhoid is the Widal reaction 
or agglutinative test, while that for malaria is the demonstration of 
the malarial parasite in the blood or tissue of the patient by micro¬ 
scopic observations. (7095.) 

The witness then stated that it was absolutely certain that if the 
statistics presented by the St. Louis health department for typhoid 
and malarial diseases were reliable, there had been no increase in the 
typhoid rate. The total deaths from these various causes run along 
together at a tolerably constant figure. They show in the typhoid- 
fever column alone a well-marked increase during the years 1900 to 
1902, inclusive. They also show a marked diminution in the remit¬ 
tent and intermittent group, and there had evidently been a transfer 
from the remittent to the typhoid column. This indicates an improve¬ 
ment in the diagnoses of the practitioners and had no significance so 
far as any possible increase in typhoid was concerned. (7096-7097.) 

With reference to the distance over which the infection of typhoid 
fever had traveled in a stream, the witness stated that if the extreme 
statement of one investigator were accepted, the distance would be 
70 to 75 miles, but that assertion had not met with general acceptance. 


(7099.) 

In his opinion, a typhoid bacillus which had lain in the sediment of 
A stream for a period in excess of fifty days would be harmless if 
taken into the human system. The germs of typhoid fever entering 
Desplaines River from the Chicago drainage canal would not be a 
menace to the citizens of St. Louis after passing through the rivers 
intervening between Lockport and the intake tower at Chain of 
Rocks. He further stated that there was no evidence that would 
make it seem probable that the sewage and other matter entering 
Illinois River below Lockport would prolong the life of such disease 
germs. In his opinion the introduction of the organic matter from 
the stock yards and distilleries of Peoria would favor the disappear¬ 
ance of these organisms. He then rendered a similar opinion with 
reference to the specific germs of Asiatic cholera, tetanus, anthrax, 
and other water-borne diseases. (7100-7102.) 



duced into the drainage canal was from five to seven days. (7103.) 


TESTIMONY OF VICTOR ('. VAUGHAN. 


303 


The death rate from typhoid fever in St. Louis, compared with that 
for many other American cities, does not indicate the use of an exces¬ 
sively polluted water supply. (7104.) 

The important probable sources of infection of the St. Louis water 
supply, according to the witness, are those places within a mean flow 
of five to seven days from the Chain of Rocks intake, and the proba¬ 
bility of infection from distances requiring more than twelve days 
would be remote. (7108.) 

The cross-examination brought out no important new facts. 


VICTOR C. VAUGHAN. 

Victor C. Vaughan, called as a witness on behalf of the defendants, 
stated that he was a physician and teacher in Ann Arbor, Mich., and 
had been connected with the University of Michigan since 1876. lie 
had graduated from that University in 1875 and received his medical 
degree there in 1878. He had made a specialty of hygiene and phys¬ 
iology and had studied with Dr. Robert Koch, in the University of 
Berlin. He was at the time of his testimony serving his third term as 
a member of the Michigan State board of health and had been called 
on frequently to examine into epidemics in the State. In 1898 he 
was appointed by the President of the United States on a special 
commission, consisting of Maj. Walter Reed, Major Shakespeare, and 
the witness, to investigate the spread of typhoid fever in military 
camps. He had investigated typhoid fever in Camps Alger, Fernan- 
dina, Jacksonville, Huntsville, Chattanooga, Knoxville, and Meade, 
and during that experience had examined probably 4,000 or 5,000 
cases of typhoid fever. As a member of this commission he had been 
engaged practically ever since in writing up the statistics and studying 
the spread of typhoid fever, and had extensive experience both in the 
laboratory and on the clinical side of the disease. (7313-7315.) 

The witness then defined typhoid, malarial, intermittent, remit¬ 
tent, typho-malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers, and 
stated that all except the first two were not distinct types of disease 
and almost without exception should be interpreted in the vital-statis¬ 
tics reports as true typhoid. Reviewing the number of deaths reported 
from typhoid fever and from the other febrile diseases mentioned 
in St. Louis from 1890 to 1903, inclusive, he stated that the typhoid 
rate was undoubtedly too low and the malarial-fever rate too high. 
His experience had shown that malaria is not a common disease in 
Missouri or in that section of the country and that death from it is 
exceedingly rare—so rare, in fact, that it practically does not occur. 
He based his statement on his investigations in connection with the 
Army Medical Commission. Missouri sent six regiments to the Span- 
ish-American war in 1898, and a careful study of the records ot all 
these regiments showed that, although in some of them many cases of 
malarial fever were diagnosed, these were not malarial cases but 


304 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


typhoid fever. One of these regiments was quartered at Jefferson 
Barracks, practically a part of St. Louis, until July, 1898. While 
malaria was frequently reported by the medical officers in charge, 
more careful examination showed that there were no such cases. The 
Sixth Missouri regiment developed 286 cases of typhoid fever, from 
which 19 deaths resulted. This regiment was stationed at Jefferson 
Barracks until early in August. It then went to Jacksonville, Fla., 
where the cases were studied by the Medical Commission, and from 
the records of this and other regiments it was developed that 96 per 
cent of the cases diagnosed as malaria were true typhoid. In connec¬ 
tion with this, the witness stated that he was born and reared in Mis¬ 
souri and returned to that State every year. He knew something of 
the malarial and typhoid conditions there, and felt convinced that 
malaria was a rare disease throughout the State and that practically all 
the reported cases were true typhoid. In connection with such erro¬ 
neous reports, the witness stated that many of the physicians were 
honestly misled. Typhoid fever, in its earliest stages, is often a remit¬ 
tent disease; that is, fever persists for a few hours and then the 
temperature is reduced to normal for a short period. These condi¬ 
tions would easily mislead a physician who was not accustomed to 
resort to modern diagnostic methods. He further stated that physi¬ 
cians are frequently actuated by policy in pronouncing a disease as 
malaria when they are certain that it is typhoid, principally for the 
purpose of allaying the fears of their parents. In no city in the United 
States are there so many deaths from malarial diseases as are reported 
from St. Louis, and while some of the cases may not have been typhoid 
fever, the inclusion of them all in the typhoid rate would not introduce 
any significant or material errors. (7315-7320.) 

The witness then examined the monthly distribution of deaths dur¬ 
ing the years 1895 to 1903, inclusive, from typhoid fever and from the 
other malarial diseases noted, and stated that without knowing any¬ 
thing of the local conditions of St. Louis and simply as a student of 
epidemiology, he would say that the probabilities are that the typhoid 
fever in St. Louis was due to local causes rather than to any infection 
of the general water supply. His reason for this was the even dis¬ 
tribution of the deaths throughout the months of each year, whereas, 
in his opinion, an infection of the general water supply would result in 
explosive outbreaks. (7320-7322.) 

Considering the figures resulting from an addition of the deaths 
reported from typhoid and those reported as being due to malarial 
diseases, the witness stated that for 1890 to 1899, inclusive, there is a 
total of 3,708 deaths, equivalent to an average rate per year of 370. 
In the four years since 1899, or after the opening of the Chicago drain¬ 
age canal, the total deaths were 1,261, or an average of 315 per year, 
showing that the rate was greater previous to the opening of the canal 
than subsequent thereto. He further stated that the situation would 


TESTIMONY OF VICTOR C. VAUGHAN. 



be reversed if the epidemic years of 1892 and 1893 were left out of the 
first total. Comparing the typhoid-fever rates in St. Louis with 
those in other cities, notably New York, Minneapolis, Philadelphia, 
Richmond, Buffalo, Albany, and Cleveland, he called attention to the 


fact that there had been an increase in all of these cities and that St. 
Louis had not occupied a different position in this respect from that of 
many other places. He attributed this to the fact that typhoid fever 
has been more widely disseminated over the country, having been, in 


his opinion, spread from the army camps in 1898. (7323-7326.) 

That part of Table 1 showing the typhoid death rate per 100,000 in 
St. Louis was then presented to the witness, who stated that it did not 
indicate an epidemic of typhoid fever, inasmuch as in such an epidemic 
the increase ranges from 100 to 400 per cent and sometimes more. 
The increase shown was such as might be expected to be due to local 
conditions, especially if wells were getting more and more filthy and 


were not condemned. (7326-7328.) 


The charts presented in the testimony of Professor Mason did not, 
according to the witness, show any causal relation between typhoid 
fever in Chicago and that in St. Louis. (7328.) 

The witness then stated that he would look for the cause of increased 
typhoid in St. Louis in the local conditions. It is a wholly erroneous 
assumption that typhoid is carried altogether by means of drinking 
water, and in illustration ol this lie exhibited a chart based on the rec¬ 
ord of the Fifteenth Minnesota regiment, which was in camp on the 
fair grounds at St. Paul and at Fort Snelling, Minn. All of the men 
were supplied with water from a common source, yet some companies 
remained practically free from typhoid while others were largely 
affected. The transferrence of the infection was due, in the opinion 
of the witness, to direct contact from person to person, infection of 
tents, clothing, bedding, etc. The condition was comparable to that 
in crowded cities. (7328-7329.) 

The witness could see no evidence from the typhoid statistics that 
the Chicago drainage canal had anything to do with typhoid fever in 
St. Louis. In the first place, the distribution of the disease in St. 
Louis is indicative of local contamination and spreading by contact 
rather than by any general infection of the water. Second, there are 
certain cities in which the increase in typhoid fever has been more 
marked than in St. Louis, notably, Buffalo, from which the Chicago 
drainage has been turned away. (7329.) 

The cross-examination brought out no new facts. 


WILLIAM S. THAYER. 

William S. Thayer, called as a witness in behalf of the defendants, 
stated that he was a physician graduated from Harvard Medical School 
in 1889. After graduation he had spent a year as house physician at 


IBB 194—07 


20 



306 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

the Massachusetts General Hospital, had studied for a year in Berlin 
and Vienna, and then had taken the position of assistant resident phy¬ 
sician in Johns Hopkins Hospital at Baltimore. He was later 
appointed assistant professor of medicine in the university, had pur¬ 
sued further studies in Europe, and was at the time of testimoiry one 
of the physicians in chief at Johns Hopkins Hospital Dispensary and 
visiting physician at the Union Protestant Infirmary. 

The testimony of the witness was mainly corroborative of that 
given by Professors Dock, Vaughan, and Barker—namely, that the 
records of deaths from typhoid fever in St Louis do not constitute a 
satisfactory statement of the case, because the deaths recorded as 
being due to remittent, intermittent, typho-malarial, and other febrile 
diseases should be included in the typhoid column, and if such addi¬ 
tion were made no increase in typhoid fever in St. Louis would be 
shown over and above that which might well be accounted for by 
natural causes and would be comparable with that in other cities; 
further, that no relation appeared between the fluctuations and 
typhoid deaths in Chicago and those in St. Louis. (7465-7501.) 

JOHN W. HILL. 

John W. Hill, a witness called on behalf of the defendants, stated 
that he was an hydraulic engineer, at that time engaged as chief engi¬ 
neer of the bureau of filtration of Philadelphia, which was conducting 
the improvement of the water supply of that city by filtration of the 
water from Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, the sources of public water 
supply. This work embraced the filtration of 320,000,000 gallons of 
water per day and a general reorganization of the distribution system, 
at a total cost of about $26,000,000. The witness stated that he first 
engaged in the planning and building of waterworks about thirty-two 
years previous to the date of testimony, and from that time on infor¬ 
mation concerning the hygienic quality of water supplies had always 
been an essential part of his work. He had been associated with 
about 60 such projects, looking either to the general construction or 
improvement of municipal waterworks. Wherever his engineering 
association with water-supply development had concerned the ques¬ 
tion of quality of water, investigations had been made to determine 
the desirability of available sources. Prior to his Philadelphia engage¬ 
ment his principal work of this kind had been for the city of Cincinnati, 
where he was chairman of the original board of engineers that made an 
investigation and furnished the plans on which the present improve¬ 
ments in that city are being constructed. lie had also engaged in 
engineering along Ohio River at Parkersburg, W. Va., and Madison- 
ville and Jeffersonville, Ind., the purpose being to determine the 
desirability of drawing water from Ohio River for drinking and other 
domestic purposes, lie then gave an extended fist of other cities hi 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. HILL. 


307 


which he had made investigations concerning the desirability of 
streams as sources of public water supply. Aside from purely engi¬ 
neering investigations of drainage basins where rivers or ponds had 
been the sources of public supply, he had taken up the subject of bac¬ 
teriology and attempted to qualify himself as an amateur in this line, 
not with a view of practicing the science as a profession, but to gain 
information as to the bacteriological condition of water supplies, with 
which, as an engineer, he would be required to deal. He had also 
studied the chemistry of water with the same purpose in view. (7502- 
7505.) 

He had investigated typhoid-fever epidemics at Eaton, Ohio, and in 
the Cumberland Mountain region of Kentucky, both as a part of invest- 
tigations looking to the improvement of the water supply of Cincinnati. 
He had also studied the records of all important typhoid epidemics 
that had been reported, as well as of certain cholera epidemics in 
Europe and in this country. (7505-7506.) 

The witness professed to have examined and studied the analytical 
data concerning the waters of Lake Michigan, the Chicago drainage 
canal, and Desplaines, Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers, pre¬ 
sented in evidence of behalf of the defendants by Professors Jordan, 
Palmer, Burrill, and Long. He also professed acquaintance with the 
natural features of the above-named bodies of water so far as they are 
represented in published documents and in hydrographic maps pub¬ 
lished by the United States Government and the city of Chicago. He 
had not made a personal examination of the drainage canal, nor of the 
Illinois River, except in the region of Peoria, where during 1882 he 
was employed on the Peoria waterworks. (7506-7507.) 

With reference to Bacillus prodigiosus and its occurrence, the 
witness believed he had found it twice in investigations of Ohio 
River water during 1895 and 1896. He had also made experiments 
on the longevity of the typhoid bacillus in 1895, working with ster¬ 
ilized and unsterilized Ohio River water. These experiments indi¬ 
cated that the typhoid organism would grow in sterilized water with¬ 
out apparent reduction in virility for sixty days at least. The 
unsterilized water, however, gave negative results, as he was never 
able to find the germ after the first inoculation. He ascribed this 
not to the disappearance of the organism after such inoculation, but 
to his inability to isolate it in culture media. In connection with 
the work in Philadelphia he had caused experiments to be made with 
a view to determining what, if any, influence the amount of chlorine 
in Delaware River water might have on the longevity of the typhoid 
organism. Concentrations of chlorine in water varying from 25 to 300 
parts per million were used, and the fact was revealed that the amount 
of salt in Delaware River water had little or no influence on the 
longevity of either the typhoid or the colon bacillus and that their 


308 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

life was limited to a period varying from five to eight days under the 
most favorable conditions. It was also revealed that the colon bacil¬ 
lus would live longer than the typhoid organism in unsterilized 
Delaware River water with varying degrees of salt concentration. 
These experiments were made because of the probability of an in¬ 
crease of chlorine content in the water of the Delaware to 50 parts 
per million at a time when the city of Philadelphia would be drawing 
350,000,000 gallons per day for the city supply, the excess of chlorine 
being due to the influx of tidal water coming up the river from Dela¬ 
ware Bay. (7508-7510.) 

Tables 88 and 89 were then introduced, giving the results of the 
above investigation. (7512-7513.) 

In the opinion of the witness the above experiments afforded data 
on which to base an opinion concerning the longevity of the typhoid 
organism in polluted river water. In the absence of information to 
the contrary he would assume that the longevity of such organisms 
in lake or river water where sewage pollution was no less than in 
Delaware River above Philadelphia would be substantially the same 
as that found by him in these experiments. lie gave this opinion 
mindful of the fact that the temperature of incubation doubtless 
would be the same for unsterilized as for sterilized water taken from 
any other suspected source of supply. In estimating the longevity 
of these organisms collected at some other point or from some other 
streams or source of water supply lie would be governed by the 
results of the tests made on Delaware and Schuylkill river waters, and 
he would feel safe in expressing an opinion from such data that the 
organism would certainly not live longer in unsterilized than it did in 
sterilized water, and would probably have a shorter life history. 
He would expect that its life in unsterilized water would certainly 
be no longer and probably less than eight days, lie regarded the 
conditions of the laboratory tests usually made as more favorable 
to the growth or the persistence of the typhoid organism than natural 
conditions,.owing to the fact that a constant temperature is main¬ 
tained in the flasks in which incubation is carried on and all other 
conditions conducive to the preservation of the life of the organism 
are generally observed. He would estimate the life of the typhoid 
organism in a sewage-polluted river water as from five to eight days. 
The degree of pollution would have an important effect. lie assumed 
as a general proposition that rivers where they are used as sources of 
public supply, like the Delaware, Schuylkill, Merrimac, Hudson, 
Missouri, or Mississippi, do not differ widely with reference to sewage 
pollution, which is more intense in some cases and at some points 
than in others, but nevertheless there is a distinct pollution in all 
these streams that would have some modifying influence on the lon¬ 
gevity of the organisms. (7514-7517.) 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN 


W. HILL. 


309 




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310 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


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311 


TESTIMONY OE JOHN W. HILL. 


The witness stated that from such information as he had gathered 
concerning the bacteriological and chemical characteristics of the 
water of Illinois River, as disclosed by the data presented in evi¬ 
dence, and concerning the physical conditions with reference to 
slope and slack-water pools in the river at different points, he would 


not expect a greater longevity of the typhoid organism in Illinois 
River than lie had found to be the case in Schuylkill and Delaware 
rivers. The dams erected across Illinois River create important 
opportunities for sedimentation. Each pool acts very much like a 


sedimentation basin operated on the so-called continuous plan. 
Flood conditions that take the river out of its channel in many 
places increase the opportunities for sedimentation, to the advantage 
of the purity of the water. The witness was certain that 800,000 
cubic feet of Lake Michigan water per minute carried into Illinois 
River through the drainage canal would not so increase the rate of 
flow as to impede sedimentation to any marked extent. On the 
other hand, the dilution caused by such influx should mean a purer 
water in Illinois River, because, first, it would increase self-purifi¬ 
cation in a mechanical way by increasing the volume of flow and 
reducing the percentage of pollution; second, it would increase the rate 
of oxidation by adding to the polluted water a water containing large 
amounts of dissolved oxygen. The danger of infection to persons 
drinking polluted water is really diminished by dilution, because the 
percentage degree of pollution when referred to the total volume of 
water flowing is reduced. The dilution of the sewage-polluted water 
would act exactly in the same manner as the dilution of a poison, and 
if dilution is increased the pollution may finally be reduced to so 
small an amount as to eliminate all danger. Therefore, the purer 
water diverted from Lake Michigan into Illinois River should improve 
the quality of the latter in proportion to the relative volumes. 


(7517-7522.) 

Being asked whether the addition of Lake Michigan water to the 
sewage of Chicago draining into Illinois River is a detriment or a 
benefit to the sanitary condition of the river water considered from 
the standpoint of chemical and bacterial changes, the witness stated 
that in general a comparison of the data for the four summer months 
of 1899 and 1900 indicated that the condition of the river below Peoria 
was better at the latter period. The nitrites decreased and the 
nitrates increased, showing that self-purification was progressing 
in greater degree. In giving this answer the witness stated that some 
account must be taken of the difference in stream flow for the two 
years, but that although the evidence of Jacob A. Harman shows that 
the flow was greater for 1900 than for 1899, nevertheless, some of 
the chemical conditions indicate better purification in 1900, and it 
does not appear that the addition of the Chicago sewage has injured 


312 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

the quality of the water below Peoria. Such addition would undoubt¬ 
edly increase the current and to some extent the time required for 
sedimentation. Whenever the increased volume is sufficient to over¬ 
flow the banks it might have the opposite effect, by reason of the 
large degree of sedimentation that would take place over the bottom 
lands. The chief factor governing the case is the mean velocity of 
flow before and after the opening of the canal. Sedimentation and 
oxidation of organic matter are favored by low surface slope of the 
channel, and the purification depends on the time and the distance; 
in two cases where the distances were the same and the time of flow 
greater for one than for the other, the self-purification would be most 
extensive in the stream having the slowest flow. (7522-7523.) 

The witness then introduced a series of tables showing the variation 
in bacteria, suspended matter, total solids, oxygen consumed, nitrites, 
nitrates, and chlorine at various sampling points along the water 
course for the years 1899 and 1900 and interpreted the tables as show¬ 
ing the following results: 

1. An increase in the bacterial content of the water in Illinois River 
from Havana to Grafton. 

2. A decrease in the suspended matter from Wesley to Chain of 
Rocks at about one-fourth the distance from the Missouri shore. 

3. An increase in total solids from Chicago to Grafton. 

4. A reduction in total solids from Mississippi River at Grafton to 
Chain of Rocks at one-fourth the distance from the Missouri shore. 

5. An increase in the total solids from the Missouri shore of Missis¬ 
sippi River at Alton to the Missouri shore at the St. Louis waterworks. ♦ 

6. A reduction of total solids in Missouri River at Fort Bellefon- 
taine. 

7. With two exceptions a material reduction in the total oxygen 
consumed, which in the opinion of the witness is significant as indicat¬ 
ing self-purification by natural processes during stream flow past the 
32 sampling stations named. 

8. An increase in the total oxygen consumed in Sangamon River, 
but a decrease at all other stations. 

The nitrites and nitrates in the witness’s opinion are always signifi¬ 
cant factors in showing changes taking place in the quality of polluted 
waters. The nitrites should diminish as the water is reduced in sew¬ 
age pollution and the nitrates should increase. With the exception 
of four stations—namely, Desplaines River at Joliet, Kankakee River 
at Bloomington, Illinois River at Morris, and Sangamon River at 
Chandlerville—the nitrites are largely decreased. With the excep¬ 
tion of nine stations—namely, the Illinois and Michigan Canal at 
Bridgeport, at Lockport, and at La Salle, Desplaines River at Lock- 
port, Fox River at Ottawa, Illinois River at Ottawa, at La Salle, at 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. HILL. 


313 


Henry, and at Avery ville—there is everywhere a marked increase in 
the nitrates. Therefore, if the witness were applying the information 
to the work of filtration he would have no hesitation in claiming the 
same degree of purification by the filters as is here shown in the canal 
and river. In view of all the data, and particularly those relating to 
the total oxygen consumed and the nitrates and nitrites, the witness 
considered that the condition of the water flowing in the stream at 
Grafton had been improved. Basing his opinion on the technical 
data collected for the purposes of this investigation lie did not think 
that the sewage of Chicago in its original condition is manifested in the 
water of Illinois River at Grafton, nor did he think that infected 
material from the sewers of Chicago would pass down to St. Louis, 
because of conditions of low water in Missouri River and high water in 
Illinois River. (7525-7530.) 

In the light of the information presented by the experimental work 
in this case the witness would not expect a typhoid organism intro¬ 
duced into Illinois River through the Chicago drainage canal to pass 
the entire length of the stream. On the contrary, he would expect it 
to perish somewhere in transit before it reached Peoria, the evident 
reduction of organic matter in the river between the point of dis¬ 
charge into the canal and Peoria being the basis of this opinion. 
(7532.) 

Referring to the statement made in the testimony on behalf of the 
plaintiff that in spite of the fact that the reservoir at Covington, 
Ky., was sufficiently large to furnish a thirty days’ supply for the 
city, typhoid was prevalent there, the witness said that he did not 
believe that the conditions would justify such an assumption, because 
a large part of the people of Covington do business or are otherwise 
engaged daily in Cincinnati, and investigations of the typhoid-fever 
rates in Covington, Newport, and Cincinnati from 1890 to 1896 gave 
satisfactory evidence to his mind that the larger part of the typhoid 
fever in the Kentucky cities mentioned is chargeable to Cincinnati 
water. Notwithstanding this the rate in Covington was less than 
that in Cincinnati, as shown by the following statement of deaths per 
100,000 of population: 


Table 90.— Typhoid deaths per 100,000 population in Cincinnati and Covington, 1890 to 

1896. 


Year. 

Cincin¬ 

nati. 

Coving¬ 

ton. 

Year. 

Cincin¬ 

nati. 

Coving¬ 

ton. 

1890. . .... 

67 

43 

1895. 

36 

27 

1891. 

62 

45 

1896. 

48 

32 

1892 

40 

40 




1893 

43 

27 

Average.. 

49. 4 

36.3 

1894... 

50 

42 





























314 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness did not believe that all the Covington typhoid was due 
to Cincinnati water, but asserted that a large part of it undoubtedly 
did arise from that cause. In Covington a considerable amount of 
water is obtained from old-fashioned dug wells, many of which are 
undoubtedly polluted. (7533-7536.) 

In the interpretation of typhoid statistics the witness’s preference 
was for the statement of cases based on the unit of 100,000 population 
rather than on the mortality percentage, the reasons being similar to 
those cited in connection with testimony previously reported herein 
(p. 254). (7537.) 

The witness stated that the liability of infection of rivers is not so 
great from rural as from urban populations. In rural pollution the 
element of time is important, and it had been shown by the experience 
of numerous cities that such pollution may cause epidemics. (7537- 
7539.) 


From a bacteriological point of view the water of Illinois River at 
Grafton is decidedly better than t hat of Missiouri River at Fort Belle- 
font aine. The same statement may be made if based on the amount 
of suspended matter, total solids, nitrates, nitrites, and chlorine. 
(7542.) 


The witness then presented a table showing the relative areas of the 
drainage basins of Illinois River, of the Mississippi above the mouth of 
the Illinois, and of the Missouri above its confluence with the Missis¬ 
sippi. On the assumption that the mean rainfall would be the same 
over the combined drainage areas, and all consideration of the flow of 
the Chicago drainage canal being omitted, of each 100 gallons of water 
flowing in Mississippi River opposite Chain of Rocks, 75f gallons 
would come from Missouri River, 20^ from Mississippi River, and 4| 
from Illinois River. As a matter of fact, however, the mean rainfall 
over the Missouri River drainage area is not so great as that over either 
of the other two basins, and this being considered it is probable that 
the total flow opposite St. Louis would be 70 per cent Missouri, 20 to 
22 per cent Mississippi, and 6 to 7 per cent Illinois water. Carrying 
out these computations and considering the added flow from the 
Chicago drainage canal, the witness stated that on the basis of a uni¬ 
form rainfall over the entire area of the three rivers 20 per cent of the 
water flowing opposite St. Louis would be from the upper Mississippi, 
75\ per cent from the Missouri, 2.96 per cent from the Illinois, and the 
remaining 1.54 per cent from the Chicago drainage canal. The wit¬ 
ness then presented Table 91, including statistics concerning the 
drainage basins above mentioned and similar data for Delaware and 
Schuylkill rivers. (7542-7549.) 


TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. HILL. 315 


able 91 . Statistics concerning the drainage areas of Missouri , upper Mississippi , Illi¬ 
nois, Delaware , and Schuylkill rivers. 


MISSOURI RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN. 


• 

Drainage basin. 

Cities. 

Area 
(square 
miles). 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Distance 
of mouth 
from 

St. Louis 
(miles;. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Distance 

from 

St. Louis 
(miles). 

Missouri River (includingall tributaries). 
Jefferson City, Mo. 

• 520,086 

5,120,607 





9,664 
163,752 
20,735 
15,722 
102,979 
102, 555 
25,802 
33,111 

110 
264 
290 
305 
■ 322 

440 

441 
530 

Kansas City, Mo. 




Leavenworth, Kans. 




Atchison, Kans. 




St. Joseph, Mo.. 




Omaha,~Nebr. 




Council Bluffs, Iowa. 




Sioux Citv, Iowa. 




Big Sioux Rivera... 

10,009 
70,119 
89,742 

179,090 
49,002 
727,689 

550 

1,165 

422 

Yellowstone Rivera. 



Platte River... 



Denver. 

133,859 

980 

Kansas River. 

60.436 

1,014,772 

265 

Kansas City, Kans. 

51,418 
33,608 

265 

308 

Topeka, Kans. 




Osage Rivera. 

16,254 

531,765 

107 





a No large cities on'this river. 


MISSISSIPPI RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN ABOVE ST. LOUIS. 


Mississippi River (including all tribu¬ 
taries except Missouri River"). 

Quincy, Ill. 

Burlington, Iowa. 

Rock Island, Ill. 

Davenport, Iowa. 

Clinton, Iowa. 

Dubuque, Iowa. 

La Crosse, Wis. 

St. Paul, Minn. 

Minneapolis, Minn. 

Illinois River.. 

Peoria, Ill. 

Ottawa, Ill. 

Chicago, Ill. 

Rock River. 

Rockford, Ill. 

Beloit, Wis. 

Janesville, Wis. 

Wisconsin Rivera. 

Chippewa River. 

Eau Claire, Wis. 

Chippewa Falls, Wis.. 

St. Croix Rivera. 

Minnesota River. 

Mankato, Minn. 

Cedar Rivera... 

Des Moines River. 

Des Moines, Iowa. 


171,698 i 


32,081 




10,231 


12,823 

-8,818 


7,655 
16,109 


12,657 

14,025 


8, 409.676 


3, 433,845 


564,972 


326,197 
167,098 


128,623 
396,790 


470,205 
513,516 



36,252 

110 


23,201 

178 


19,493 

241 


35,254 

242 


22,698 

270 


36,297 
28,895 

325 


423 


163,065 

545 


202,718 

557 

37 



56,100 

162 


10, 588 

227 


1,608,575 

357 

241 


31,051 

342 


10,436 

360 


13,185 

375 

380 


490 



17,517 

530 


8,094 

542 

530 


545 



10, 599 

615 

200 


140 



62,139 

283 


« No large cities on this river. 


DELAWARE RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Drainage basin. 

Cities. 

Area 

(square. 

miles.) 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Distance 
from 
Trenton 
(miles). 

Delaware River (including all tributaries except 

9,217 

1,430,367 




25,238 

10,052 

42 5 
42 











































































































































316 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


Table 91. —Statistics concerning the drainage areas of Missouri • upper Mississippi, Illi¬ 
nois, Delaware, and Schuylkill rivers —Continued. 

SCHUYLKILL RIVER DRAINAGE BASIN. 



Drainage basin. 

Cities. 

Area 
(square 
miles). 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

4 

Distance 

from 

Phila¬ 

delphia 

(miles). 

Schuylkill River (including all tributaries). 

2,008 

382,192 



Norristown Borough, Ra. 



22,265 

6 

Reading, Pa. 



78,961 

43 

Pottsvilie, Pa;. 



15', 710 

89 






If typhoid-fever germs should he found in Mississippi River water 
at the Chain of Rocks intake, it would he wholly impossible to state 
from what source they were derived, because there are many large 
cities in the drainage basins of the three rivers above St. Louis which 
might contribute such germs to the river. Other things being equal 
it would be more likely that they would come from the nearest points 
of pollution. (7550-7551.) 

With reference to the alleged increase of typhoid fever in St. Louis 
subsequent to the opening of the Chicago drainage canal the witness 
stated that if the typhoid statistics show an increase in the death rate 
per unit of population since the opening of the canal, and if the inves¬ 
tigation clearly indicates that there is no other possible source of 
infection, and if the rate in St. Louis fluctuates synchronously with 
the rate in Chicago, it might be held that such increase could be 
charged to the flow of sewage in the drainage canal. In other words, 
unless the rate in St. Louis fluctuates with those in Chicago he would 
be of the opinion that such increase was caused by much nearer 
sources of infection, of which there are many above St. Louis. While 
it can not be positively stated that Chicago sewage might not con¬ 
tribute to this increase, it is equally out of the question to assert that 
a single city out of many discharging sewage into the rivers above St. 
Louis is the sole cause of it. The city of St. Charles, on Missouri 
River, being nearer the St. Louis intake, would constitute a greater 
menace to the water supply than Chicago or Peoria. The nearness 
of the place of local infection, rather than the size of the place, is the 
chief factor in determining the source of infection. (7554-7556.) 

The witness then described his investigation to determine the popu¬ 
lation living on the three drainage basins above St. Louis. The first 
step was to divide the total population on the basin by its area, the 
result being the distribution per square mile. Then the population 
of each urban center was divided by the distance of the center from 
the St. Louis intake. The quotients thus obtained were averaged and 
the total population divided by the sum of the quotients, thus fixing 
the center of population. The effect of this was to give a numerical 






















TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. HILL. 


317 


value showing the relative probable degree of pollution of the water 
flowing past St. Louis from each of the respective drainage basins. 
The next step was to.take the mean of all the quotients obtained by 
dividing the population of the urban centers by the distance of each 
center from St. Louis, which gave a factor that fixed the probable; 
center of pollution on each drainage basin. A further step along this 
line was made by adding together the total area of each of the three 
basins and dividing the area of each by the total to obtain a factor 
which would show the proportion contributed by each basin to the 
water flowing in Mississippi River below the confluence of all three 
streams. The rainfall was then considered. The amount on the 
Missouri basin as an entirety would be less than that on the Missis¬ 
sippi or the Illinois basin, and this fact would change the proportions 
obtained by the last-described computation. The results of these 
calculations were stated as follows: 

The distribution of population per square mile is in the Missouri 
basin 9.94, in the Mississippi basin above Illinois River 43.21, and 
in the Illinois basin 107; the urban population per square mile of 
the Missouri basin 2, of the Mississippi basin 9, and of the Illinois 
basin 72. The result of dividing the population of urban centers 
containing 4,000 or more people by the distance of such centers 
from the St. Louis water intake is for the Illinois basin 209.2, for 
the Mississippi basin 122.47, and for the Missouri basin 106.56. The 
relation of these numbers to each other indicates inversely the rela¬ 
tive value of each stream as a source of water supply with respect to 
sewage pollution from all sources. That is to say, the Missouri 
would have the highest value, the Mississippi next, and the Illinois 
lowest. In these calculations, however, no consideration is given to 
the flow of water in the stream. If, however, the flow was greatest* 
in Missouri River, which normally would be the most valuable 
source of supply for St. Louis, and least in Illinois River, which was 
shown bv the above computations to be the least desirable, the 
unfavorableness of Illinois River would be mitigated. For example, 
if the flow of Illinois River was 1 per cent of that of Mississippi 
River in front of St. Louis, then, notwithstanding the fact that the 
Illinois is the most objectionable drainage basin from which to draw 
the supply, the effect of this water when compared with the other 
99 per cent of water derived from Missouri and upper Mississippi 
rivers would not be appreciable. (7556-7562.) 

The witness stated that it would make no difference either in the 
cost of construction or the cost of operation of a filtration system 
at St. Louis whether the sewage of Chicago were turned into Illinois 
River or not, because from his experince he believed that sewage 
pollution is not a factor in the cost of filtering a polluted water, but 
rather that the suspended matter that such water carries would 


318 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


increase the cost of maintenance hy reason of the frequent cleaning 
of the beds that such matter would make necessary. The cost of 
purification of Missouri River water would be greater than that of 
water from Illinois or upper Mississippi rivers, because the Missouri 
carries the largest amount of suspended matter. (7563-7566.) 

No important new relevant facts were brought out on cross- 
examination. 


TESTIMONY IN REBUTTAL FOR 


PLAINTIFF. 


EDWARD W. SAUNDERS. 


DIRECT EXAMINATION. 


Edward W. Saunders, called as a witness on behalf of the com¬ 
plainant in rebuttal, stated that lie had been a physician in general 
practice in St. Louis for twenty-six years, having graduated from 
the medical school of the University of Virginia in 1875. He testi¬ 
fied concerning his acquaintance with typhoid fever, and stated that 
the Widal test was used by physicians for the purpose of making an 
early diagnosis of the disease. He considered that this test was in 
general use among the medical profession in St. Louis, and with 
reference to the effects thereof stated that many cases of disease 
that had been supposed on clinical diagnosis to be typhoid fever had 
not been supported by this test, the result of which was that they 
had been eliminated from the typhoid list, thereby having a ten¬ 
dency to reduce the numbers of fatal cases reported since the intro¬ 
duction of the method. On the other hand, he was of the opinion 
that the use of the test had resulted in correcting the diagnosis of 

O o 


.malaria and placing it under the head of typhoid. On the whole, a 
lower rate of fatality from the disease had been the residt of the 
adoption of this test. (7587-7593.) 

In the witness’s opinion the circular sent out by the St. Louis 
board of health urging all physicians to report their cases of typhoid 
fever had had no effect. (7593-7594.) 

With reference to various medical terms, he stated, first, that he 
had no idea what the term “congestive fever” meant, but it would 
not necessarily be included among typhoid cases; second, that he 
understood the term “ typho-malaria ” as being a complication of 
typhoid fever and malaria; third, lie would include “remittent 
fever” among the typhoid cases generally, because indigenous remit¬ 
tent fevers are not fatal; if, however, the case had been that of a 
very young or very old person and death had occurred at the onset 
of the disease he would believe it to be malaria, but not if death had 
occurred after a protracted illness, because quinine, usually admin¬ 
istered in such cases, is as a rule a specific; fourth, he expressed the 


TESTIMONY OF EDWARD W. SAUNDERS. 


319 


same opinion concerning '‘intermittent fever” as above noted with 
reference to remittent fever; fifth, he had no conception of what the 
term bilious fever meant; sixth, deaths referred to as caused by 
“simple continued fevers” he would place in the typhoid class, inas¬ 
much as he believed in the dictum of Doctor Osier that any fever 
that continues a week and is not amenable to quinine must be 
typhoid. (7594-7596.) 

CIK )SS-EX AMIN ATION. 

On cross-examination the witness admitted that if it should 
appear in the health statistics of St. Louis during the last ten years 
that there was a group of deaths reported as remittent, intermittent, 
typho-malarial, congestive, and simple continued fevers and that 
these deaths amounted to something like 200 a year, it would be a 
reflection on the diagnostic ability and carefulness of the doctors 
making the reports. If the number of deaths from typhoid and the 
number reported to be caused by the other febrile diseases were 
about the same, it would lie his opinion that the majority of these 
latter cases belonged in the typhoid column, and in the light of such 
evidence he would say that the physicians of St. Louis were not 
employing the Widal test. lie admitted it to be the fact that prac¬ 
titioners wedded to old forms of treatment are obstinate in accepting 
new forms and that this would make itself manifest in the mor¬ 
tality statistics. Assuming that approximately the same number of 
deaths are recorded from typhoid fever as from the other febrile 
diseases mentioned, he would conclude that the typhoid report is as 
inaccurate as the other one, and he attributed these inaccuracies to 
failure in diagnosis. He further stated that physicians in general 
practice in St. Louis are not possessed of the degree of skill necessary 
to make the microscopic diagnosis either of malaria or typhoid. 
(7600-7605.) 

With reference to the comparative fatality of typhoid and malaria, 
the witness stated that in his entire practice he had ne'ver written a 
death certificate from any form of malarial fever except in the very 
young, when convulsions carried off the patient in the onset of the 
disease, or in the aged, where malaria caused the death of a very 
weak person. (7608.) 

WASHINGTON E. FISCHEL. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Washington E. Fischel, called as a witness on behalf of the com¬ 
plainant in rebuttal, stated that lie had been practicing medicine in 
St. Louis since 1874. lie graduated from the medical department of 
Washington University and had taken postgraduate studies in the 


320 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


universities of Berlin and Vienna. He had devoted himself entirely 
to internal medicine, which included the treatment of typhoid cases, 
and was at the time of testimony connected with St. Luke’s Hospital 
and the city hospital, and lectured to classes in the latter. (7612— 
7613.) 

The witness stated that, taking into consideration the value of the 
Widal test in early diagonsis of typhoid fever, and also the fact that 
typhoid is a disease which, if properly treated in its early stages, is 
less likely to become fatal than if diagnosed later, he believed that the 
introduction of this test would lessen the mortality in St. Louis. lie 
further stated that he had observed more typhoid fever during the 
winter and spring months within the last few years than formerly, 
but did not recall any circular sent out by the city board of health 
with reference to reporting cases of typhoid and had heard no dis¬ 
cussion of it among the profession. He stated that personally it had 
had no effect on his actions in connection with reporting cases. He 
believed, however, that many cases of deaths from typhoid fever had 
not been reported as such, for the reason that the physician, not hav¬ 
ing reported the case at its onset, would endeavor to avoid respon¬ 
sibility in the death certificate. With reference to the various terms 
for febrile diseases noted in the preceding testimony, lie stated that 
he could not define the meaning of “ congestive fever,” but that he 
would suppose that it might mean typhoid or, on the other hand, it 
might mean something else. Similarly, deaths reported as caused by 
remittent or intermittent fevers would not necessarily be typhoid, 
but might be tuberculosis, pneumonia, meningitis, or diphtheria. 
(7614-7617.) 

lie then said that the effect of the opening of the drainage canal 
had been to make him extremely careful with reference to the diasr- 
nosis of typhoid, because naturally he felt that there was a great 
danger from the Chicago sewage and he wanted to make it clear to 
himself whether in his experience that danger existed, and therefore 
he never reported a case as typhoid when the Widal reaction was not 
positive. (7617-7618.) 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

On cross-examination the witness admitted that the converse of 
his statement concerning the effect of the use of the Widal reaction 
was true, namely, that many deaths from typhoid were reported as 
being due to other diseases, lie was not of the opinion, however, 
that if the typhoid in St. Louis prior to the opening of the canal had 
been diagnosed with the same degree of care that had been used sub¬ 
sequent to the opening there would have been a larger number of 
deaths reported, because the rule is that the clinical picture of typhoid 
is no clearer and positive diagnosis would be made in a majority of 


/ 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF BREMER, TAUSSIG, AND GOODMAN. 321 

cases without the Widal reaction. The deaths reported as being due 
to remittent, inteimittent, and other febrile diseases may have been 
tuberculosis. lie was of the opinion, however, that among these 
deaths t\ phoid fever should be reported more often than tuberculosis, 
lie believed that the circular sent out by the board of health after the 
opening of the drainage canal, calling attention to the necessity for 
leporting typhoid, had, on the whole, made the physicians more 
careful. If the official statistics should disclose that the number of 
typhoid-fever deaths had increased since the opening of the canal and 
the number of deaths from the other febrile diseases mentioned had 
decreased, it would be an indication that the physicians had exer¬ 
cised more care in diagnosis. He would assign faulty diagnosis as a 
reason why many of the deaths were reported under the miscellaneous 
febrile diseases, and admitted that where it was found that the number 
of deaths attributed to these causes in a city of the size of St. Louis 
amounted to about 200 a year it was an indication that there were a 
great number of physicians who were not abreast with the profession. 
(7619-7623.) 

LUDWIG BREMER, ALBERT E. TAUSSIG, AND C. H. GOODMAN. 

Similar testimony in rebuttal was rendered by Drs. Ludwig Bremer, 
Albert E. Taussig, and C. II. Goodman. Doctor Goodman stated that 
although he had seen a number of cases of pernicious malaria in St. 
Louis, he would be greatly surprised if the fatality ran as high as 50 
annually. 

HERBERT E. SMITH. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

Herbert E. Smith, a witness called on behalf of the complainant in 
rebuttal, stated that he was dean of the medical school at Yale Univer¬ 
sity, had studied in the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University 
in the chemical and bacteriological courses, and then in the medical 
department of the university. He received his degree of doctor of 
medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in 1882. Since graduation 
he had been connected with the Yale Medical School under various 
designations, and at the time of testimony held the title of professor 
of chemistry and dean of the medical faculty. In the eighties he was 
appointed one of the Connecticut State chemists; was later appointed 
chemist of the State board of health, and for a period of fourteen years 
had had immediate charge of all the work, chemical and bacteriolog¬ 
ical, which the board had done in the matter of river pollution. 
Since 1887 he had been a student of bacteriology and had imported 
one of the first sets of Koch's bacteriological apparatus into the United 


ire 194—07 


21 


322 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


States. His experience along all the lines of water supply, water pol¬ 
lution, and water and sewage purification had been continuous, and he 
had investigated epidemics of typhoid fever throughout the State of 
Connecticut. (7679-7683.) 

Tables 86 and 87 (pp. 284,285), introduced into evidence by Professor 
Kinnicutt for the defense, were exhibited to the witness, also those of 
Professors Long, Palmer, and Jordan. He stated that they did not 
furnish sufficient data to permit him to form a positive opinion in 
regard to the value of the drainage canal as a septic tank in the puri¬ 
fication of sewage. While the figures show that there is a considerable 
solution of suspended matter and decomposition of organic matter 
and a reduction taking place in various ingredients in the sewage while 
passing through the canal, no opinion could be formed from them con¬ 
cerning the destruction of pathogenic organisms, particularly those of 
typhoid fever. While a reduction might be apparent, there was noth¬ 
ing to show how efficient the canal was in this respect. The figures 
concerning the water at the various sampling points in Illinois Kiver 
show the composition of the samples of water at the time and place at 
which they were collected. Those in the upper portion of the stream 
show a very high chemical and bacterial pollution, and there was a 
gradual diminution in the amount of the various constituents during 
the progress down the river to Avery ville, an increase below Peoria, and 
a further reduction to Grafton, but the samples at Grafton show con¬ 
siderable evidence of sewage contamination still remaining. The 
results fail to show, however, the true conditions of the river at the 
several stations at all times, because a sample taken from a running 
stream from time to time can not show the composition of the river at 
that place at other times. The witness further stated that there was 
no evidence in the tables that the samples taken at the time were in 
amount proportional to the flow of the river, and obviously they 
would represent a different proportion of the constituents at times of 
flood from that which they would in times of low water, inasmuch as 
the samples were all of the same size. With reference to the individual 
results on which the averages were based, the witness stated that there 
were many which deviated widely from the average and that such 
averages do not show a true condition, because the general average 
can relate only to conditions at the times when and the places where 
the samples were taken. A sewage-contaminated stream varies 
greatly from time to time in its content of impurity, depending largely 
on the irregularities in the discharge of the sewage. At one time the 
sewage will be of a certain character and at another time it will differ 
widely, either because of the varying character of the material dis¬ 
charged from manufacturing plants or because of the differences that 
are found in the flow of sewage from houses at different parts of the 
day. Moreover, there is a very marked difference in the flow of 


streams, duo to tho variable rainfall at dilVoront seasons and times. 
This lias the oiled noi onl\ ot moivasmg the volume of the flow, caus¬ 
ing a consequent dilution, hut also ot bringing down aeeiimulated pol¬ 
luting materials m the drainage area. Pherefore an average result 
can not show the condition of the stream at all times. The witness 
asserted that the tables of averages introduced by Professor Kinni- 
cutt do not form a competent basis in the present condition of sanitary 
science on which to form a definite opinion as to the sanitary condition 
of the stream to which they relate. lie based this assertion on his 
belief that chemical analyses do not and can not show all the evidence 
of dangerous pollution that might exist in a stream. Such analyses 
are addressed to the detection and determination of certain elements 
that are useful in demonstrating the presence or absence of sewage in a 
stream, but in the present state of the science it is impossible to decide 
whether certain results are or are not evidence of sewage contamina¬ 
tion. Furthermore, there are certain ingredients coming from sew- 
age, which may be present in a stream and which are of material 
importance, that art' not revealed by the chemical analysis. In the 
opinion of the witness neither do the bacterial analyses, in the present 
state of sanitary science, reveal in all cases the presence of constituents 
of sewage. (7683-7692.) 

.The witness had examined the figures relating to the extent of 
population residing on the drainage area of Illinois River, both urban 
and rural, the figures showing the amount of sewage discharged into 
Illinois River at various points along its course, and the data showing 
the flow of the river. Taking all these into consideration, he was of 
the opinion that the urban population on the several drainage areas 
tributary to the Illinois, exclusive of that of the Chicago sanitary dis¬ 
trict, gives, according to the analytical tables presented in evidence, a 
greater amount of sewage pollution than he would expect on a river of 
that size and population, and that such an excess of pollution must 
come from the Chicago drainage canal. Considering the sources of pol¬ 
lution and the natural and artificial conditions existing along Illinois 
River previous to the opening of the canal and comparing the same 
w r ith those which were present subsequent to the opening, he stated 
that the earlier conditions were such as to afford greater facilities for 
the removal of pathogenic organisms than had existed later. 
(7692-7697.) 

On the assumption that the sewage of Chicago passes through the 
drainage canal into Desplaines River, down the Illinois to the Mis¬ 
sissippi, and past Chain of Rocks within ten to twenty days from its 
initial discharge into Chicago River, the witness stated that it v T as 
his belief that the water at Chain of Rocks is less valuable for sanitary 
use than it, was before the opening of the drainage canal and that 
there is a very much greater liability to infection from typhoid fever 


324 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


of persons drinking the water from that point in the river. The 
increase of volume of Illinois River by the addition of water from the 
drainage canal at the rate of 250.000 cubic feet per minute would 
cause an increase in the flow of Illinois River, and would thereby 
largely increase the liability of typhoid-fever germs passing down into 
Mississippi River past Chain of Rocks in a virulent condition and 
thus becoming a serious menace to the health of persons living below 
the mouth of the Illinois. (7697-7701.) 

A sanitarian in order to enable himself to pass intelligently on the 
character of a water should avail himself of all knowledge obtainable 
on the subject. A chemical examination may give such results as 
would indicate that the water is sewage polluted; but to decide how 
important the pollution is its condition and extent must be deter¬ 
mined as far as possible by other means. There are cases, however, 
in which the chemical analysis will fail to give positive data as to the 
presence of pollution even when it is undoubtedly present, as shown 
by other data. The bacteriological analysis frequently aids in 
obtaining results indicating the presence of sewage contamination, 
but in other cases will not disclose the presence of anything of the 
kind. Such tests have often failed to show evidence of contamina¬ 
tion even in streams which were known to have received sewage. In 
determining whether a water in use has been exposed to sewage pol¬ 
lution, the most positive way of obtaining evidence is by a careful 
study of the character of the effects which have been produced on 
the people using such water. Where a large community uses a water 
which has been sewage polluted and the injurious ingredients still 
persist, the fact is inevitably shown in its results upon the health of 
the people. The statistics of typhoid in a community are on the 
whole the best evidence of sewage pollution. (7701-7702.) 

The witness stated it very positively as his opinion that typhoid 
bacilli living in the sediment of a polluted stream for a period of sixty 
days would be able to produce typhoid fever if taken into the human 
system. When typhoid bacilli are deposited on the bottom of Des- 
plaines and Illinois rivers between Chicago and Peoria for a period of 
thirty or forty days they might retain their dangerous qualities if 
there is nothing which would make it certain that such organisms 
would meet with any material which would surely be destructive to 
them. Under such conditions the discharge of the drainage canal 
has unquestionably been, in the opinion of the witness, the cause of 
typhoid fever in St. Louis. (7703-7705.) 

With reference to the location of the so-called zone of purification, 
mentioned in the testimony of several witnesses for the complainant, 
Professor Smith stated that the conditions affecting the purification 
of streams were so complex that it would be impossible by the ordi- 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF HERBERT E. SMITH. 325 

nary methods to determine at what point in the river the purification 
was effected. The only entirely satisfactory way which could be 
suggested was by a study of the results ot the use of such water by 
communities. If these fail to show any evidence of deleterious 
effects, it might reasonably be concluded that the point under consid¬ 
eration was outside of the zone of danger during the time of the 
experiments, but owing to the fact that the chief deleterious con¬ 
stituents of sewage are living organisms and that at certain times they 
may, by being embedded in solid materials, be protected from influ¬ 
ences ordinarily adverse to them in streams it would be impossible 
to predict with certainty that at some other time than that of the 
experiments the water would be perfectly safe at that point. It is 
important to recognize in the matter of sewage pollution that the 
chief injurious ingredients are living organisms and that the question 
of dilution does not come into the discussion to anything like the 
extent that it would if the injurious ingredients were inert chemical 
substances. If the latter were the case, these ingredients could be 
diluted to such a point that the dose in any given amount of water 
in the stream would be without effect on living persons, but it is 
necessary to recognize that dilution does not affect the individual 
living organisms but only their dissemination through the water. It 
is possible, therefore, to find in one portion of the water something 
that will be deleterious, while in another adjacent portion there may 
not be any. There are no experiments which are entirely satisfactory 
in proving that typhoid bacilli are not able to survive in sewage for 
a period of three or four days or even for longer periods. In view of 
these facts and the further fact that the bacilli may be deposited in 
the bottom of a stream under conditions which would protect them 
from certain deleterious influences, it would be his opinion that 
typhoid bacilli may survive for a very much longer period than three 
or four days. (7705-7708.) 

The experiments of Professors Russell, Jordan, and Zeit on the 
longevity of typhoid-fever bacilli, conducted by using parchment 
sacks, according to the witness, do not exemplify the true conditions 
found in a stream. The introduction of the typhoid bacilli in an arti¬ 
ficial manner in such a quantity of sewage, inclosed in a parchment 
sack, does not simulate the condition that would exist in the case of 
typhoid bacilli discharged into sewage and coming from a patient 
suffering with typhoid fever, in which case the organisms might read¬ 
ily be inclosed in fecal matter. Further, the condition of the bacilli 
in the sack is quite different from that in which they would be if 
they were free in the stream, where they could be deposited in the 
sediment and become protected from the influence of sewage on them. 
Inclosed in the sacks, the bacilli would be subjected to the frequently 


326 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

changing condition of water in any one spot, while if not so retained 
they would pass farther down the river and be free from the delete¬ 
rious effects of such changes. As they pass downstream, the condi¬ 
tions would become more and more favorable to them owing to the 
greater dilution and the proportionate decrease of unfavorable sub¬ 
stances in the water. The results of the parchment-cell investigations 
do not agree with other experiments that have been made by sanita¬ 
rians, and he did not know of anyone who had felt justified as a result 
of these experiments in limiting the period which typhoid bacilli may 
survive in sewage. No information was given concerning the organic 
matter in the parchment sack; it might have been so far decomposed 
as to afford £0 nutriment to the bacilli and they might have died as a 
result, but in general the conditions prevailing in the sack are so 
much at variance with the normal conditions and the results so much 
at variance with the ordinary experience of persons who have had to 
deal with epidemics of typhoid fever that the evidence is altogether 
too incomplete to form the basis of an opinion of so wide and far- 
reaching importance. (7708-7713.) 

With reference to the increased amount of typhoid fever in St. 
Louis, the witness stated that the absence of any corresponding 
increase over the drainage area above Chain of Rocks, exclusive of 
the sanitary district of Chicago, is sufficient to demonstrate that such 
increase must have been due, in considerable part, at least, to infec¬ 
tion from the Chicago sewage. In making comparisons of conditions 
before and after the opening of the canal the competent method of 
deciding whether or not there has been an increase is to compare the 
typhoid rates in St. Louis during the two periods 1896 to 1899, inclu¬ 
sive, and 1900 to 1903, inclusive. This affords the best method of 
testing whether or not the sewage of Chicago was deleterious to the 
health of the people of St. Louis. That there had been such an increase 
was shown by the mortality records in the office of the St. Louis 
health commissioner. The increase had been more noticeable during 

o 

the winter and spring months than during the summer and autumn. 
(7716-7720.) 

In the opinion of the witness the use of the Widal test had affected 
very materially the reports of deaths from typhoid fever, but had had 
a more marked influence in the matter of correct diagnosis of the 
milder cases. Boards of health in large cities usually have regu¬ 
lations concerning the reporting of certain diseases and among them 
typhoid fever is always included. Inasmuch as the circular sent out 
by the board of health of St. Louis shortly after the opening of the 
drainage canal related to the reporting of cases of typhoid fever and 
not at all to the reporting of deaths, there was no reason why there 
should be any special effect in the mortality reports. (7720-7721.) 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF HERBERT E. SMITH. 327 

The witness then testified to his experience in the oversight of 
water-filtration plants and the costs which they involved, and gave 
it as his opinion that the installation and operation of a filtration plant 
at St. Louis would be more expensive by reason of the discharge of 
Chicago sewage into Illinois River. (7722-7723.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

In reply to questions concerning the witness’s contention that sam¬ 
ples should be taken of an amount proportional to the flow of the 
river, he stated that if a stream is flowing 1,000 gallons per minute 
at one point and a gallon sample is taken therefrom the results of 
the analysis will not be comparable with those obtained with a sam¬ 
ple taken from the stream where it is running 2,000 gallons per min¬ 
ute unless the latter sample is 2 gallons. While the results bear the 
same relation to the amounts taken, such results will have to be con¬ 
sidered in making the average; that is, it will be necessary to give a 
value for the sample collected when the flow is 2,000 gallons per 
minute twice as large as for one taken when the flow is 1,000 gallons. 
Furthermore, in order to get thoroughly representative results the 
samples must necessarily be taken from weirs—that is, from some sort 
of a weir arrangement which will give a continuous flow, one portion 
going into the sample bottle and the other going on down the river. 
There is no substitute for this. The taking of a sample every week or 
hour or every five minutes will not truly represent the conditions. 
No one would, however, be likely to recommend the weir method 
described, because the value of the results obtained would not be com¬ 
parable with the difficulties. (7723-7725.) 

With reference to the character of Missouri River water as a source 
of supply, the witness stated that by reason of the numerous points of 
pollution in the drainage basin, he did not regard it an as ideal water 
for drinking purposes, but the typhoid-fever statistics in St. Louis 
from the time the water intake was located at Chain of Rocks to the 
date of the opening of the Chicago drainage canal compare very favor¬ 
ably with those of other cities in the United States having reasonably 
good supplies. He might recommend the continued use of the water 
with the sedimentation basin already installed, but it would be neces¬ 
sary to operate the plant with caution. He admitted that the water 
was not absolutely safe, but contended that there are very few abso¬ 
lutely safe waters, and even those which have been subjected to filtra¬ 
tion could not be included among that class. Under such conditions, 
the expert is obliged to decide as to the reasonable safety of the water, 
and while he would hesitate to use it himself or to allow his family to 
use it, yet in giving an opinion concerning it he would have to recog¬ 
nize that it was reasonably safe and that the average community in 


328 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


the United States does not expect so high a standard for its require¬ 
ments as he did in his own practice. This opinion he extended to the 
water of Mississippi River above Grafton and to that of Illinois River 
if all the sewage from Chicago were excluded. With regard to abso¬ 
lute safety, he stated that he could conceive of such an ideal condition 
existing in some drainage areas, but it is so difficult to find a large sup¬ 
ply of water that is safe at all times that he would not expect to be 
able to recommend any such surface supply for a large community. 
(7736-7743.) 

Referring to his testimony concerning the increased cost of filtering 
the water at Chain of Rocks after the opening of the drainage canal 
over that which would have been necessary had the canal not been 
constructed, the witness stated that the chief sanitary advantage of 
filtering water is to remove infection. The rapidity and the character 
of filtration and the scientific oversight of the operation of the filter all 
depend on the relative contamination of the water to be filtered. A 
water which has a certain amount of contamination would be satis¬ 
factorily filtered at a certain rate, but if it received a greater amount 
of pollution that rate would have to be reduced in order to accomplish 
the removal of the obnoxious matter with the same degree of thorough¬ 
ness. Consequently, it would require a larger filter plant to purify the 
same amount of water. Furthermore, filters are liable to fail in their 
operation at times, and therefore a filter through which a highly con¬ 
taminated water is being passed must be operated with greater care. 
It is not true that the chief cost of establishing and operating a fdter 
from a sanitary standpoint depends on the amount of material in sus¬ 
pension. The question of infection is not, according to the witness, a 
matter of secondary importance. (7743-7747.) 

The witness then repeated his opinion concerning the longevity 
experiments of Professors Jordan, Russell, and Zeit, namely, that the 
conditions were so different from those naturally prevailing in polluted 
water that he did not credit the experiments as being sufficient to per¬ 
mit a judgment concerning the longevity of the typhoid bacillus in 
polluted rivers. If the sacks had been allowed to float down the 
stream so protected that they would not have been subjected to the 
changing water conditions, the results might have been more accurate. 
Also, in the opinion of the witness it would have been a good plan to 
have tried sacks of such size as to admit the accumulation of consider¬ 
able quantities of sediment. While the experiments were unquestion¬ 
ably very carefully performed, their weakness lay in the fact that they 
did not simulate natural conditions; and, in his opinion, the problem 
is so difficult and the variations in the conditions are so extreme that 
he could not conceive how laboratory methods of the character 
described could afford a satisfactory solution. (7747-7750.) 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF HERBERT E. SMITH. 329 

The witness stated that he had examined the typhoid-fever statis¬ 
tics of St. Louis by consulting two sets of data—those in the reports 
of the commissioner of health and the records in the mortuary office, 
there was a marked discrepancy in these data. The terms remittent 
and intermittent fevers are names applied to malarial infections and 
are used in statistical work as representing the different manifesta¬ 
tions of malaria. The term typho-malaria is in variable usage. In 
the best usage it is confined to the condition which exists when the 
patient is suffering from a joint infection by the typhoid and malarial 
organisms; but it has been used to represent conditions that exhibit 
what is known as the typhoid state, referring rather to the symptom¬ 
atology than to the case. The term congestive fever is undoubtedly 
restricted to the severe form of malarial infection that is manifested 
by the congestive chill. The term simple continued fever is no longer 
correctly used and does not represent any specific disorder, but 
grouped under it there have been unquestionably many low conditions 
which were characteristic of or characterized by continued fever. 
Many of them were simply bacterial infection, but not associated nec¬ 
essarily with typhoid or malaria. (7750-7751.) 

Fatality from malaria differs greatly in different localities. In the 
temperate zones it is usually confined to feeble persons—either the 
extremely young or the extremely old, although of course persons of 
intermediate ages may succumb to malarial conditions if they are in 
feeble condition. Doctors undoubtedly confuse typhoid fever with 
other diseases at times, but this misinterpretation is probably much 
more frequent among cases that do not result in death than among 
fatal cases, because when a person dies from typhoid fever the condi¬ 
tion is likely to display itself in such a manner that the diagnosis is 
generally corrected at some time before the death if there was a mis¬ 
take in the original diagnosis. There are, however, some cases which 
are never correctly diagnosed. It is not uncommon for a physician 
after he has improperly treated a patient through faulty diagnosis to 
change his diagnosis on the occurrence of death when the symptoms 
become apparent and to record the death on the certificate in con¬ 
formity to his later diagnosis. The witness had considered the 
typhoid deaths as reported and the data concerning each of the other 
febrile diseases. Even if all of the latter were included in the former, 
there was still an increase in the number of typhoid cases from 1900 to 
1903, inclusive, over and above those occurring from 1896 to 1899, 
inclusive. He had also considered the compilations of deaths from 
the various febrile diseases with a view of forming an opinion as to 
whether any considerable portion of them were typhoid, but from the 
standpoint of the age of the person and the distribution of the cases 
by months he believed that comparatively few of them should be 


330 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

I 

included in the typhoid class. The proportion of typhoid deaths due 
to local causes—such as wells, etc.—in St. Louis could not have been 
greater since the opening of the canal than previous thereto, and the 
rate which prevailed during the first period was about the same as 
that found in some of the cities of the better class in the United States. 
(7751-7755.) 

JOHN W. ALVORD. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

John W. Alvord, called as a witness on behalf of the complainant in 
rebuttal, stated that for twenty-four years he had been a practicing 
hydraulic and sanitary engineer in Chicago; that he had not gradu¬ 
ated from any technical institution, but his engineering education had 
been confined to study and travel, coupled with practical experience. 
His first engineering work was in 1879, when he was connected with 
the construction of the Hyde Park pumping station of the Chicago 
waterworks. Subsequently he was in charge of the construction of 
the Lake view station, and for four years was city engineer of Lake- 
view, which was at that time a separate municipality from Chicago. 
He had visited Europe in 1888 and 1894 and studied the question of 
water purification and sewage disposal. From 1890 to 1893 he had 
charge of a department in the construction of the World’s Columbian 
Exposition. He resumed private practice in 1894 and had since been 
engaged in various capacities with about 35 different city water¬ 
works and 45 municipal sewer systems, including the purifica¬ 
tion of water and the disposal sewage. In 1898 he made a report 
to the city of Columbus, Ohio, on the extension of its sewerage sys¬ 
tem and the purification of its sewage. From 1898 to 1902 he was 
consulting engineer to the Illinois State canal commission, advising as 
to the works of the sanitary district in and through Joliet and the liti¬ 
gation concerning the removal of dams and locks at Joliet. More 
recently he had been engaged in the development of water power at 
Petoskey, Mich., Big River, Mo., and Des Moines, Iowa. He had 
had some experience in typhoid epidemics, having studied them at 
Chicago in 1892 and 1893; at Hurley, Wis., Ironwood, Mich., Culver 
Academy, Ind., and Grand Forks, N. Dak., in 1894, and at Duluth in 
1896. So far as he had studied these epidemics all of them had been 
caused by polluted water supplies. He was familiar with Chicago 
River, the Chicago drainage canal, and Desplaines and Illinois rivers, 
having in 1888 been engaged in litigation on behalf of the State of 
Illinois, and he had studied the progress of the construction of the 
drainage canal and related questions. He had observed Illinois River 
at Morris, where he designed a system of sewers; at Ottawa, where he 
was engaged in water-power litigation; at Marseilles, where he 
advised as to the enlargement of the water power; and at Seneca, 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. ALVORD. 


331 


La Salle, Peru, Hennepin, Peoria, Pekin, and Havana. He was also 
familiar with Mississippi River from Alton to St. Louis. He had given 
attention to the bacteriology and chemistry of water and had tried to 
keep himself posted on them in a general way ever since they had 
come into use among engineers. He had taken a partial course in 
chemistry at the University of Chicago in 1894, and in 1900 had studied 
bacterial quantitative analysis under the direction of Professor Novy, 
of the University of Michigan. He was employed in 1902 by the 
special commission to investigate the water supply of St. Louis, his 
part of the work being to study the financial history of the present 
works—their cost and the cost of operation. In the course of this 
work he had become familiar with the characteristics of the water- 
supply system and had visited the sedimentation basins at Chain of 
Rocks and Bissells Point. He had also made some study of the 
typhoid conditions on the drainage area above St. Louis, principally, 
however, from the data submitted in the present case by both com¬ 
plainant and respondents. (7761-7764.) 

The witness then introduced a diagram and table showing the rela¬ 
tion of typhoid deaths in St. Louis to those on the drainage area above 
that point. The results are contained in Table 92. (7766.) 


Table 92. —Relation of typhoid deaths in St. Louis to those on the drainage areas cf 

Missouri, upper Mississippi, and Illinois rivers. 


Year. 

Deaths in 
St. Louis. 

Population 
in St. 
Louis. 

Deaths in 
St. Louis 
per 500,000 
population. 

Deaths on 
drainage 
area. 

Deaths in 
Chicago. 

Deaths on 
drainage 
area, in¬ 
cluding 
Chicago. 

1890. 

277 

451,770 

307 




1891. 

160 

465,000 

174 




1892. 

488 

477,000 

512 




1893 . 

215 

489,000 

220 

505 


505 

1894. 

178 

500,000 

178 

474 


474 

1895. 

106 

512,000 

103 

408 


408 

189G. 

106 

524,000 

101 

354 


354 

1897. 

125 

538,000 

116 

410 


410 

1898 . 

95 

550,000 

86 

411 


411 

1899. 

130 

561,000 

116 

420 


420 

1900. 

168 

572,238 

147 

503 

339 

842 

1901. 

198 

585,000 

169 

494 

509 

1,003 

1902. 

222 

600,000 

185 

431 

801 

1,232 

1903. 

288 

612,000 

235 











* 

This table was then explained by the witness, who made the fol¬ 
lowing statement: In order to determine the causes of typhoid fever 
the deaths along the different rivers have been separated from each 
other, so as to determine the source of the most marked pollution. 
The figures show that the deaths from typhoid in the Illinois basin, 
exclusive of the sanitary district of Chicago, are fairly uniform up 
to 1899, but show an increase in 1900, the year in which the drain¬ 
age canal was opened. The deaths on the Missouri basin appear to 
be reasonably uniform for the whole period under consideration, and 
those on the Mississippi basin above the mouth of Illinois River, 

















































332 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


while fluctuating somewhat more than the two above described, are 
generally uniform before and near the time of the increase in deaths 
in St. Louis. In summing up the total of typhoid deaths on the 
three drainage areas above St. Louis, it would appear that while 
there is some fluctuation and a low period about 1896, at no time 
since the increase in typhoid in St. Louis in 1900 had the number 
of deaths materially exceeded a fair average rate. The witness 
'observed, however, that the addition of the deaths from the sani¬ 
tary district almost doubles the total for typhoid in these drainage 
areas, influencing the pollution of the St. Louis water supply and 
increasing during 1901 and 1902, so that in the latter year the total 
typhoid deaths are nearly two and one-half times the deaths on the 
drainage areas above St. Louis exclusive of the sanitary district. 
After the opening of the drainage canal there appeared an increase 
in typhoid in St. Louis, caused undoubtedly by the added typhoid 
contamination from the sanitary district. (7769-7770.) 

The witness stated that he had for some years past considered the 
longevity of the typhoid organism to be from sixty to ninety days in 
favorable environments. Although under unfavorable conditions large 
amounts of these bacilli might be removed from any given source of 
supply in a comparatively short time, it would not be safe to assume 
that a water once polluted could be recommended for public use 
under a period shorter than sixty to ninety days, unless the con¬ 
tamination were eliminated by a carefully designed and operated 
system of purification. (7771.) 

The witness then stated that he was familiar with the experiments of 
Hiram F. Mills on the longevity of typhoid bacilli recorded in the 
reports of the Massachusetts State board of health, and also with 
those of Doctor Horrocks described in the Proceedings of the Sani¬ 
tary Institute for 1899. lie believed that the conditions under 
which typhoid bacilli are carried away from Chicago approximate 
those under which Messers. Mills and Horrocks carried on their 
experimental work. The sewerage system of Chicago has very flat 
gradients and requires frequent artificial flushing. During heavy 
rainfalls the entire contents of the sewers are discharged into the 
river, bringing into it a mass of pollution that has been accumu¬ 
lating for months. Before the opening of the drainage canal such 
periods of contamination were extremely dangerous to the water 
supply of Chicago, as shown by the increase in typhoid deaths fol¬ 
lowing them. The heavy flushings of rainfall occur ordinarily in 
the early spring, after the breaking up of the winter, and at times 
when the temperature is most favorable to the longevity of the 
typhoid germs. Such flushing of the Chicago sewer system with its 
present large proportion of pure water and low temperature fur¬ 
nishes conditions which are more favorable to the longevity of the 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. ALVORD. 333 

typhoid germ than those under which the experimental work of 
Mills and Horrocks was conducted. The discharge of this amount 
of pollution furnishes the necessary velocity for rapid conveyance 
through the sanitary canal and Desplaines and Illinois rivers to the 
intake of the St. Louis water supply. The increment of compara¬ 
tively pure water from the tributary streams also increases the dilu¬ 
tion and decreases the chances for toxic destruction of the total 
number of typhoid germs present. As another factor in increasing 
this rapid conveyance of the pollution the witness stated that in the 
case of heavy rainfall on the drainage area of Chicago River it is 
often necessary, in order to prevent outflow into Lake Michigan, to 
lower the Bear Trap dam at Lockport, so as to produce greater 
velocity at all stations on the drainage area. This undoubtedly aids 
in the rate with which the pollution is conveyed away from Chicago 
and down Illinois River. (7771-7773.) 

Referring to the float measurements given in the testimony of 
Isham Randolph, the witness stated that he was unable to find any¬ 
thing that gives a clue to the amount of discharge in Desplaines and 
Illinois rivers either at Joliet or Peoria and was therefore unable to 
determine the stage of the river at the time of these measurements. 
The experiments were performed in July, 1903, and this time is not 
covered by the table of discharges in Mr. Randolph’s testimony, nor 
are there any gage readings given at Peoria, although the testimony 
includes a rating table for this place. The testimony consists of the 
bare statements that the float passed over the distance in fifteen days, 
which is raised to eighteen and one-half days by dividing it by eight- 
tenths. The witness failed to see the pertinency of Mr. Randolph’s 
conclusion that a correction should be made, tending to reduce the 
maximum surface velocity to the mean velocity of flow. The use of 
the correction by eight-tenths in the manner described in Mr. Ran¬ 
dolph’s testimony is a very rough approximation, used by hydraulic 
engineers when surface floats are run in the most rapid part of the 
channel of the river in order to determine the ayerage flow for the 
whole cross section and thus get at the quantity passing a given point 
at a given time. In the case under consideration, the endeavor is not 
to determine the quantity of water so passing, but to determine what 
length of time any given pollution, flowing in mid-channel, will take to 
pass over the distance from Chicago River to Chain of Rocks at St. 
Louis. This required, in the opinion of the witness, a determination 
of the mean velocity of the central section of the stream. The floats 
described in the testimony were not surface floats but were partly 
submerged, and gave the mean velocity of the central portion of the 
stream with a fair degree of accuracy. Therefore the correction, in 
his opinion, was not necessary and the actual time of fifteen days 
would fairly represent the total time required for polluted materials 


334 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


to pass over the distance. With reference to the respective velocities 
shown by the float experiments of Professor Van Ornum for the com¬ 
plainant and Mr. Randolph for the defendants, the witness stated that 
in July, 1903, when the work of Mr. Randolph was performed, the water 
was at a very much lower stage than during Professor Van Ornum’s 
experiments. The latter commenced in a low-stage period between 
two March rises in the river, when 289,000 cubic feet per minute was 
flowing over the Bear Trap dam, which gives a ver}" low velocity in 
the drainage canal. At the same time about 394,000 cubic feet per 
minute were passing over Dam No. 1 at Joliet. Five days after the 
operations of Professor Van Ornum were commenced, nearly double 
this amount was passing over Dam No. 1. It would seem, therefore, 
that the work was done during a comparatively high stage, but not by 
any means the highest stage of the river. The observations show that 
Peoria was passed when the flow of Illinois River was about 50,000 
cubic feet per second, which would correspond to a stage of the river 
somewhat overflowing the banks in the lower courses. As Professor 
Van Ornum used submerged floats, the witness believed that the 
actual time traveled represents the mean velocity of the pollution 
vehicle. He had had occasion to make very careful velocity studies 
in that part of Desplaines River immediately below the Bear Trap 
dam and had verified the results of Professor Van Ornum. Summing 
up the two investigations, the witness stated that nine and eight- 
tenths days were consumed between Bridgeport and Chain of Rocks, 
this being based on the mean velocity to Joliet and Professor Van 
Ornum’s results for the rest of the distance. The witness did not con¬ 
sider that this was the shortest time in which pollution could travel 
the distance. He believed that such high flood stages as occurred in 
1892 would reduce the time at least to eight days and possibly to less. 
He then stated that nine and eight-tenths days represented in his 
opinion a velocity which could be counted on as occurring during a 
number of periods each year. (7775-7780.) 

The chart introduced into evidence by Rudolph Hering, represent¬ 
ing the self-purification of Missouri, Mississippi, and Illinois rivers, 
based on the longevity of life of the typhoid bacillus as fixed by the 
experiments made under the direction of Hiram F. Mills, repre¬ 
sented, according to the witness, an attempt to derive the possible 
amount of contamination in the water at Chain of Rocks from the 
sanitary district of Chicago, by assuming that the original pollution 
is proportional to the population and that the longevity of the typhoid 
bacillus is that found by the experiments of Mr. Mills. The chart 
also makes the same deductions for Mississippi and Missouri rivers. 
In the case of Illinois River, the length of time of flow from Chicago 
to Chain of Rocks is taken at eighteen and one-half davs, corre- 
spending with the results of Mr. Randolph’s experiments. It seemed 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. ALVORD. 335 

to the witness that Mr. Hering had not given due weight to the effect¬ 
iveness of different populations in the production of pollution. The 
sanitary district of Chicago has been afflicted for years with an abnor- 
mat number of typhoid deaths. The other cities in the Illinois drain¬ 
age area, deriving their water from artesian wells, have very low 
typhoid rates. Therefore, it would appear to the witness that to 
make the chart more exact some method should be introduced by 
which the disparity in the typhoid data could be allowed for in rep¬ 
resenting the effect on the St. Louis water supply. The time used by 
Mr. Hering in the diagram and table (7001-7003) gives the rate of 
travel of polluting material at low stages of the river, and, therefore, 
does not fairly indicate the greater danger to the St. Louis supply at 
medium or high stages. It would seem that the diagram should be so 
constructed that these modifications would be clearly apparent. The 
witness then introduced a diagram which he called a schematic rep¬ 
resentation of the reduction of typhoid bacterial pollution in Illinois 
River, based on the data and methods proposed by Rudolph Hering 
in his diagram submitted in the case, but with suggestions for correc¬ 
tion, first, by using Professor Van Ornum’s float experiments; second, 
by valuing the effect of contributory population on the basis of a 
standard typhoid death rate of 20 per 100,000 living; third, by using 
velocity of pollution vehicle rather than average velocity of cross 
section of the river. In explaining the diagram the witness stated 
that the figures cover only the reduction of typhoid bacterial pollu¬ 
tion in Illinois River, and are prepared as nearly as possible in the 
manner introduced by Mr. Hering, based on the experiments of Hiram 
F. Mills as to the longevity of typhoid germs. The ordinates of the 
diagram represent the tributary population calculated in its relation 
to typhoid death production. As a basis for this a standard of 20 
deaths per 100,000 living had been assumed, this being the death rate 
of an ordinarily well regulated city in the situation of Chicago, having 
due regard to the protection of its water supply. On this basis the 
witness had determined for the year 1902 the typhoid death rate- of 
Chicago and other places along Illinois River, which are given in the 
table and accompanying diagram. The population of the sanitary 
district is taken from Mr. Mills’s chart and not from the Federal 
census. The abscissas of the diagram indicate the number of days 
consumed in the flow of the pollution from the sewers of Chicago, up 
to the fifteenth day, based on the float experiments of Professor Van 
Ornum from Lake Joliet to Chain of Rocks, and on the witness’s 
estimates of the velocity in the drainage canal and Desplaines River 
down to Peoria. With these data a curve had been plotted, due con¬ 
sideration being given to percentage of reduction in the typhoid con¬ 
tamination from the population center through the proper incre¬ 
ments of time, to agree with the experiments of Mr. Mills. This 


336 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


curve indicates the relative typhoid bacterial pollution so far as it can 
be predicated on the population. The witness further observed that 
the chart represented comparative pollution contributed by fatal 
cases alone. It should be remembered that in fatal cases infection 
ceases to be contributed to the stream on and after the date of death, 
while in cases not fatal infecting matter may be and is contributed to 
the stream for days, weeks, and even months. The diagram fails to 
take- into account this extra pollution and therefore must be con¬ 
sidered as conservative. On the assumption that the active typhoid 
contamination is proportional to the population and that the diminu¬ 
tion in the number of typhoid germs day by day is as shown in the 
experiments of Mr. Mills, the modifications introduced into the dia¬ 
gram by the witness would show a considerably increased amount of 
typhoid pollution entering the intake at St. Louis. Whereas Mr. 
Hering’s diagram shows that the typhoid pollution entering the 
intake at the end of a low-river flow of eighteen and one-half days is 
equivalent to an infection from a tributary population immediately 
above the intake of a city of 13,000 people, the conclusions of the 
diagram would seem to indicate that the normal flow of fifteen da}^s 
would be equivalent to an infection from a city with a population of 
90,000 located above the intake, having a fatal typhoid rate of 20 per 
100,000; while on the basis of ordinary spring floods such as were 
gaged by Professor Van Ornum, the infection similarly arising at 
Chain of Rocks would be equivalent'to that derived from the popula¬ 
tion of a city of 415,000, with a death rate of 20 per 100,000. With a 
maximum flood such as occurs only at infrequent intervals, it would 
appear that the comparative pollution reaching the St. Louis intake 
would be equivalent to the infection from a population of 960,000 
with a similar typhoid death rate. The witness stated that he used 
the rate of 20 per 100,000 because there are a very considerable num¬ 
ber of cities which have so exercised care and discretion in the pro¬ 
tection of their water supplies that they have reduced the typhoid 
rate to a point lower than that. It would therefore seem to be fairly 
reasonable to assume that all cities having regard for the purity of 
their supplies would be able in the light of present science, to reduce 
their typhoid death rates to this figure, or even materially lower. 
(7780-7787.) 

In the opinion of the witness, the chemical data introduced by the 
defendants with reference to the character of the contents of the drain¬ 
age canal do not indicate that any septic action has taken place. The 
amount of improvement in the sewage in its travel through the canal 
he believed to be largely due to aerobic action, although possibly there 
might be anaerobic action to a very limited extent, but not enough 
to influence the results perceptibly. The dilution of the sewage of 
Chicago by the richly oxygenated water of Lake Michigan is not a 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF JOHN W. ALVORD. 


337 


useful preliminary to septic action, but, on the contrary, is distinctly 
opposed to the inception of such action. In good practice, it is the 
endeavor to design a septic tank so as to bring the sewage in as quietly 
as possible, undiluted with surface or underground waters containing 
dissolved oxygen. The absence of marked current, the presence in 
certain places of more foul products and considerable surface scum, 
the absence of undissolved oxygen as shown by chemical examinations, 
and the physical production of gases bubbling up through the depths 
characterize the action of the septic tank in the active reduction of 
its organic matter. It was the belief of the witness that typhoid 
germs could survive materially longer under the present conditions 
of dilution in the Chicago drainage canal than under those which for¬ 
merly prevailed in the Illinois and Michigan Canal and South Branch 
of Chicago River. (7787-7791.) 

The witness thought that the discharge of sewage from the canal 
would make more costly the construction and operation of a water- 
purification system for St. Louis, because such a plant dealing with a 
seriously polluted water, especially one of known high typhoid pollu¬ 
tion, should be more complete and delicately adjusted to its work than 
one dealing only with a water of rare infection and presenting less 
dangerous difficulties, such as turbidity and color. The added pro¬ 
tection necessary should be in the form of double filtration or com¬ 
plete sedimentation followed by careful filtration. Such double fil¬ 
tration had been resorted to in several places in Germany and had 
been recommended for Springfield, Mass., and introduced into the 
filtration system at Philadelphia. (7791-7792.) 

The witness was then asked whether in his opinion there was any 
practical modification of the existing system of sewage disposal in 
Chicago by which the drainage canal could still be employed for keep¬ 
ing the Chicago River in an inoffensive condition and yet the pouring 
of unpurified sewage into Desplaines and Illinois rivers could be 
avoided. In reply he stated that such a scheme would be entirely 
practicable, and he would suggest, as the proper remedy, the construc¬ 
tion of suitable intercepting sewers along Chicago River and its 
branches, by means of which the sewage flow of the city may be kept 
out of the river and led along its banks to the upper end of the drain¬ 
age canal below Bridgeport, and then raised by pumping to a suitable 
purification plant constructed in accordance with the latest bacterio¬ 
logical principles, and capable of effectually removing from the sewage 
practically all of its wastes and pathogenic bacteria. The effluent 
from such a plant could be emptied into the drainage canal near 
Bridgeport. He had considered the expense in a general way and 
was of the opinion that such intercepting sewers and purification 
plant could be constructed at a cost no greater than that necessary to 

irr 194—07-22 



338 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


widen South Branch of Chicago River, as had been done, and he was 
further of the opinion that the operating expense of such a plant 
would be no greater than that of the present system of pumping sew¬ 
age and the necessary dilution water for the northern and southern 
portions of the sanitary district. 


CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

The witness had estimated that the cost of such an intercepting 
sewerage system, the construction of pumps, and the installation of 
pumping machinery as described by him would be between $12,000,00 
and $15,000,000. The plans contemplated the purification of the 
sewage of the entire sanitary district. He had given detailed consid¬ 
eration to the proper method of sewage purification. He believed 
that land might be secured at some suitable point for a reasonable 
sum. At the time the original recommendation was made by the 
engineering commission for the construction of the canal, sewage 
purification was not so well developed as at the present time, and 
there was little to justify the commission in considering such a plan. 
(7796-7802.) 

The witness said he had not compared the typhoid conditions in 
Chicago and St. Louis by months, in the manner indicated by the 
charts of Professor Mason, because he believed that it would throw 
no light on the main question, owing to the many fluctuations and 
variable elements involved; he would prefer to take the averages for 
a year, which would show in a more marked manner any main dis¬ 
tinguishing characteristics. (7805.) 

While the city of St. Charles, on Missouri River, undoubtedly had 
some effect on the typhoid death rate of St. Louis, there was, in his 
opinion, no reason to believe that the effect had been greater since the 
opening of the drainage canal, and therefore the increase that had 
occurred in the St. Louis death rate could not be accounted for in 
that way. The witness stated that he did not regard the water from 
Missouri River at its mouth, from Mississippi River above Grafton, 
or from Illinois River, even though the sewage of Chicago were 
excluded, as fit for domestic consumption in the raw state. (7806- 
7809.) 

The greatest item of expense in constructing a filter depends oil the 
kind of water and its amount of pollution. With a turbid water free 
from typhoid pollution the turbidity will undoubtedly be the cause of 
the greatest expense, whereas with a water comparatively clear but 
subject to typhoid infection the infection will be the cause of the 
greatest expense. In providing filtration for Illinois River at Grafton 
the purification of the water from typhoid infection would be at least 
equal in cost to the removal of turbidity, while for the Mississippi the 
cost would be greater for turbidity and less for typhoid infection. 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF E. E. LOCHRIDGE. 


339 


The witness stated that he disagreed with John W. Hill in his assertion 
that in the construction of the Philadelphia plant the infection of the 
water was no element of cost in the operation and installation. (7814- 
7816.) 

E. E. LOCHRIDGE. 

DIRECT EXAMINATION. 

E. E. Lochridge, called as a witness on behalf of the complainant in 
rebuttal, stated that he had graduated from Beloit College with the 
degree of bachelor of science in 1898, having given particular attention 
to the study of chemistry. During his senior year he had acted as pri¬ 
vate assistant to Prof. E. G. Smith and had studied questions of water 
supply. Immediately after graduation he had served as instructor in 
chemistry for two terms at Drury College, Springfield, Mo. He then 
returned to Beloit as regular instructor in chemistry, and in 1900 took 
the regular and some special courses in bacteriology under Prof. E. O. 
Jordan, of the University of Chicago. He then resumed his studies as 
private assistant with Professor Smith, and in the course of this work 
had had occasion to visit many public and private water supplies and 
to study and investigate several epidemics of typhoid fever, among 
which were those at, Rock Island, Ill., and Baraboo and Ashland, Wis. 
He had studied the operation of filters for municipalities in a practical 
way in nine different places. During 1902 and 1904 he attended the 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology as a graduate student, taking 
the regular courses in sanitary engineering. In June, 1903, he was 
appointed by a commission, consisting of George W. Fuller and Sam¬ 
uel M. Gray, to make special studies on the problem of the purification 
of the water supply of Springfield, Mass. This work involved experi¬ 
mental investigation of various means of double filtration. (7821- 
7823.) 

The witness asserted that he had examined the tables of typhoid sta¬ 
tistics introduced into the record and testimony of Doctor Barker and 
.stated that these statistics differ only slightly from the results obtained 
by compiling the deaths attributable to typhoid fever in the record 
books of the mortuary office. He did not believe that a comparison of 
the typhoid-fever deaths previous to 1896 with those subsequent to 
that year would be practical as a means of determining whether or 
not typhoid fever had increased in St. Louis after the opening of the 
Chicago drainage canal, because previous to 1896 the intake of the 
St. Louis waterworks was so located as to expose the supply to infec¬ 
tion from the city sewers, and for that reason it was removed farther 
up the Mississippi, above such contamination. In order to show the 
great change in the typhoid-fever mortality of St. Louis at the time the 
intake was removed, the witness presented a diagram, which appears 
on page 7825 of the record. In the interpretation of this diagram the 


340 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


witness pointed out that the death rate from typhoid fever in St. Louis 
was uniformly high up to the time of the change of the intake from 
Bissell’s Point to Chain of Rocks. Following this change there was a 
period of five years in which the rate was much lower. In 1900 there 
was a considerable increase, which had continued through subsequent 
years to the end of 1903. (7823-7826.) 

The subsequent testimony of the witness was addressed to several 
series of charts showing the occurrence of typhoid fever, malaria, and 
the other febrile diseases already noted in connection with the testi¬ 
mony of various medical experts of the defense, together with the dis¬ 
tribution of those cases according to the sanitary districts of the city. 
These charts will not be introduced in this digest, but will be explained 
and discussed so far as practicable. (The reader is referred to the rec¬ 
ord, pages 7827-7928, for the illustrations.) 

The witness introduced six charts showing the occurrence and 
monthly distribution during 1896 to 1903, inclusive, of deaths in St. 
Louis from typhoid, remittent, intermittent, typho-malarial, conges¬ 
tive, and the continued fevers. The totals by years from these dis¬ 
eases are shown in Table 93. 


Table 93 .—Deaths from typhoid and other fevers in St. Louis, 1S96-1903. 



1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903 

Typhoid fever. 

102 

114 

90 

121 

154 

181 

216 

281 

Remittent fever. 

40 

29 

26 

15 

15 

23 

17 

17 

Intermittent fever. 

12 

12 

16 

25 

10 

12 

9 

11 

Typho-malarial fever. 

50 

42 

30 

31 

36 

23 

34 

36 

Congestive fever. 

26 

22 

13 

15 

15 

4 

15 

7 

Continued fever. 

1 

1 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

2 

Malarial fever. 

27 

34 

23 

35 

40 

28 

38 

53 

Bilious fever. 

11 

8 

3 

6 

3 

5 

7 

7 

Enteric fever. 

0 

1 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

0 

Typhoid pneumonia. 

13 

18 

17 

14 

9 

18 

15 

26 

Typhoid complications a. 

0 

1 

1 

1 

0 

2 

3 

8 


a Not included under other tables. 


In discussing the above results the witness stated that the figures 
did not correspond with the results introduced into testimony by 
Professors Barker and Jordan. Adding together the figures given in • 
the records of the St. Louis mortuary office for deaths from remittent, 
intermittent, typho-malarial, congestive, and continued fevers he 
found that for 1896 to 1899, inclusive, there were respectively 1.29, 
106, 85, and 86 deaths, and if the number of deaths from malaria are 
added to these the totals for 1896 to 1899, inclusive, would be 156, 
140, 108, and 121 deaths, respectively, while Professor Jordan’s data 
give for the corresponding years 177, 172, 134, and 148 deaths—a 
somewhat greater rate than appeared from the witness’s investiga¬ 
tions. In contrast to this, he stated that during the period 1900 to 
1903, inclusive, he had found for the diseases above-mentioned rec¬ 
ords showing a somewhat higher rate than that given by Professor 
Jordan; or, in a summary of both periods, in view of the fact that 































REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF E. E. LOCHRIDGE. 


341 


malarial fevers were probably recorded in Professor Jordan’s list, as 
they did not occur under another caption so far as the witness could 
discover, the Jordan list differed from the Lochridge list as follows: 
Twenty-one more deaths in 1896, 32 more in 1897, 26 more in 1898, 
27 more in 1899, 25 less in 1900, 10 less in 1901, 12 less in 1902, and 
35 less in 1903, making it apparent, according to the witness, that the 
reduction in the recorded number of deaths from these diseases dur¬ 
ing the successive years in the period had not been so great as it had 
been made to appear by the mortality tables of Professors Jordan and 
Barker. The witness then presented a series of charts designated as 
charts 15 to 22, inclusive, showing the deaths from typhoid fever dis¬ 
tributed according to sanitary districts and according to whether the 
deaths occurred in residences or hospitals; if in hospitals and the 
residence was known, the deaths were referred to the district from 
which the patient was transferred. (These charts appear on pages 
7845-7852 of the record.) With reference to the evidence shown by 
them the witness stated that there were 40 typhoid deaths in the 
hospitals of St. Louis during 1896, 21 of which it was impossible to 
transfer to the proper residence districts; in 1897 20 of the 35 hospital 
deaths could not be so referred, in 1898 16 of the 26 deaths, and in 
1899 11 of the 21 deaths; while in 1900 but 4 of the 35 deaths could 
not be so referred, in 1901 5 of the 55, in 1902 6 of the 67, and in 
1903 3 of the 75 deaths. The charts showed that since 1900 the dis¬ 
tribution throughout the seven sanitary districts had been very uniform 
and that in no district was there an unusual number of deaths when 
compared to those in the other districts. Such uniformity indicated 
that the cause of typhoid fever was one equally applicable to all the 
citizens who use a polluted water supply. 

Similar charts were introduced by the witness showing the deaths 
from malaria for the period 1896 to 1903, inclusive. (See pages 
7856-7863 of the record.) The witness stated that these charts indi¬ 
cate the distribution throughout the year and the increase in malaria 
between 1896 and 1903. The distribution is not so uniform in the 
city as was shown by the charts for typhoid fever. Similar charts 
concerning the deaths from typho-malaria elicited the same comment 
with reference to distribution. 

The witness then introduced a series of charts numbered 39 to 46, 
inclusive, showing the typhoid-fever deaths in St. Louis for 1896 to 
1903, inclusive, classified by ages of decedents and month of the year 
in which the deaths occurred. (See pages 7874-7881 of the record.) 
From a study of the charts the witness stated that a large proportion 
of the deaths occurred between the ages of 11 and 50 and that the 
ages between 6 and 60 will include practically all of them. The 
number of children under six months of age dying from typhoid is the 
same during the first four years as during the last four. The charts 


342 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


showed not only the increase in the number of typhoid cases since the 
opening of the drainage canal, but also the increase under each age 
and by the season of the year. He pointed out that there was con¬ 
siderable increase in the winter months, as well as a somewhat less, 
though marked increase, in the summer months. Previous to the 
opening of the canal the number of deaths during the period from 
January to May and the month of December is low, while since the 
opening of the canal there had been a very marked increase in the- 
number of deaths for this period—much greater in proportion than 
during the other six months. 

The witness then introduced a series of charts similar to the last, 
giving the distribution of deaths from remittent fever during the 
period 189G to 1903, inclusive, also similar charts for intermittent 
fever. (These appear on pages 7884-7901 of the record.) With refer¬ 
ence to the monthly distribution of deaths from intermittent fever the 
witness pointed out that in 1899 there were 5 deaths from this 
disease of children under six months of age and 5 more between the 
age of six months and one year. With this exception the distribution 
is practically the same in all the charts. There were 17 deaths during 
1899 from intermittent fever of persons either below the age of 3 years 
or above the age of 61, the very young or advanced ages during which 
persons are not susceptible to typhoid, and only 8 of the age during 
which typhoid fever is most prevalent. There was not a single death 
from intermittent fever during 1899 of a patient between the ages of 
11 and 30 years, the most fatal typhoid period. 

The witness then introduced charts numbered 63 to 70, inclusive, 
showing by months and ages the distribution of deaths in St. Louis 
from typho-malarial diseases for 1896 to 1903, inclusive, also similar 
charts for malaria and malarial fever. These charts appear in the 
record, pages 7904-7920. The witness stated that they show a 
decided increase in these diseases since the year 1900 in the ages from 
about 20 to 40. Similar charts showing the number of deaths from 
congestive, billious, and enteric fevers appear on pages 7922-7928 of 
the record. 

In connection with the results shown by the charts above described 
the witness stated that in the earlier years, notably the first four years, 
1896 to 1899, inclusive, a much larger proportion of deaths occurred 
between the months of July and November, but during the years 1901 
to 1903, inclusive, there is a decided increase in the number of deaths 
occurring from December to May and this is greater than the propor¬ 
tional increase throughout the year, so that during the latter period 
the typhoid-fever deaths are scattered fairly uniformly throughout the 
year, there being but a few more deaths in the summer and fall than 
in the winter months. Two charts were introduced to show this rela¬ 
tion, the salient results of which are given in Table 94. 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF E. E. LOCHRIDGE. 343 


Table 94. — Typhoid rates per 100,000 inhabitants in St. Louis, 1896 - 1903 . 



1896. 

1897. 

1898. 

1899. 

1900. 

1901. 

1902. 

1903. 

Winter typhoid. 

t 

9 2 

13.9 

28.8 

13.1 

19.7 

15.7 

27.8 

18.8 

34.8 

19.0 

AO A 

OC Q 

35.2 

55.6 

Summer typhoid. 

29.5 

Zo. O 
AO Q 

------ 




The above results were summed up by the witness in another dia¬ 
gram showing an increase in the number of typhoid deaths during the 
cold months of 1900 to 1903, inclusive, of 118.2 per cent over the 
period from 1896 to 1899, inclusive; expressed as deaths per 100,000 
the increase is 94.8 per cent. Similar calculations with reference to 
the typhoid deaths during the warm months showed an increase in the 
number of deaths 84 per cent and in the deaths per 100,000 of 65.7 per 
cent, making, according to the witness, a total increase after the open¬ 
ing of the drainage canal of 95 per cent in the number of deaths and 
77.7 per cent in the rate per 100,000. The data for these results were 
taken from the records of the mortuary office of St. Louis, and the 
estimates of population used were the same as those computed by Pro¬ 
fessors Barker and Jordan and used in tlieir testimony. (7930-7938.) 

The witness then took up the consideration of the ages of decedents 
from the various febrile diseases noted, for the purpose of showing that 
in the majority of cases these ages were either below or above the 
periods at which typhoid is generally fatal. He stated that in 1896, 
for example, the typhoid deaths lie well between the ages of 6 and 60, 
while over 50 per cent of the remittent-fever deaths in the same year 
involved either younger or older persons than these age limits. In 
1897 there were 11 less deaths from remittent fever than in 1896, but 
that loss might be considered as entirely among the very young chil¬ 
dren and it can be seen by referring to the typhoid deaths for that year 
that not one of these had been added to the column for typhoid fever; 
in other words, no transfer could have been made to typhoid fever by 
reason of better diagnosis. If a change in the annual number of 
remittent-fever deaths had been due to better diagnosis, such deaths 
had been referred to some other disease than typhoid fever. The 
study of the table through all the following years for remittent fever 
will show, according to the witness, this same variation, confined to 
the number dying under the age of 6 years, the number of deaths dur¬ 
ing the ages in which the mass of typhoid fever deaths occur remain¬ 
ing practically the same. (7942-7943.) 

With reference to deaths from intermittent fever the witness stated 
that in each of the years 1896 and 1897 there were 12 deaths, but these 
were in different ages, the same variation in the number of deaths in 
children under the age of 1 and, in some cases, under the age of 6 being 
very apparent. He also stated that this might be noticed effectively 
in the increase of the number of deaths from intermittent fever in 1899 



























344 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

to 25, such increase being entirety in the younger ages. In 1900 the 
deaths of persons of 20 years of age and under from intermittent fever 
numbered only 3, while in the deaths from typhoid fever there is no 
marked increase in this age and no deaths from typhoid were recorded 
in that year under the age of 1, so that the decrease in the number of 
intermittent-fever deaths in the year 1899 had not been brought 
about by the transfer of these deaths to the typhoid group. In the 
other age periods the intermittent and typhoid fever deaths are prac¬ 
tically the same. (7943.) 

The witness then stated that the number of deaths recorded as 
being due to typho-malaria was practically the same during the four 
years before and the four years after the opening of the Chicago drain¬ 
age canal. In malaria there had been a marked increase during the 
past few years, and he noted that there were about the same number 
of deaths in the younger ages from malaria and malarial fever during 
these years, but the number among the older people is proportionately 
higher than the mortality in these ages from typhoid fever. (7944.) 

Referring to the relation between the deaths from congestive fever 
and those from typhoid, the witness noted a large variation occur¬ 
ring among those under the ages of 6 months and 1, 2, and 3 years, 
the variation being about the same as in the case of remittent and 
intermittent fevers. In 1896, 13 of the congestive-fever deaths were 
under the age of 5 years and 10 of these were under 1 year. With 
the exception of two years when the congestive-fever list was low the 
variation was due to deaths at these early periods of life and among 
the aged, the periods during which typhoid fever is not likely to 
attack. The reports for bilious fever showed that in all cases there 
was no variation in the number. The deaths were at the younger or 
the older age period and there had been no increase in the typhoid- 
fever deaths in these ages to correspond with the decline in bilious 
fever. (7945.) 

In reply to a question as to the effect of the Louisiana Purchase 
Exposition on the typhoid rate in St. Louis, the witness stated that 
the highest fatality from typhoid fever per 100,000 population in any 
of the four years prior to January 1, 1900, was in 1899, when the rate 
was 21.6. This includes the localized epidemic of that year. On the 
assumption that the influx of those connected with the construc¬ 
tion of the exposition or the attendance thereon would increase the 
typhoid rate of the city, the witness had calculated the population 
that would be required to make 21.6 the death rate per 100,000 for 
each of the six years since that time. In 1900 there were 154 deaths 
from typhoid fever in the city. This would indicate a population of 
714,000, or an increase of 139,000 over the population of the city in 
1899. Under the same death rate the total of 216 deaths from this 
cause in 1902 would indicate a population of 1,000,000, and the 281 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OE E. E. LOCHRIDGE. 


345 


deaths in 1903 would require a population of 1,300,000, or an increase 
of more than the entire population of the city. Therefore, on the 
basis of Professor Jordan’s estimate of the population of the city, 
which was 618,500 in 1903, or something less than 60,000 increase over 
that in 1899, it will be seen that the increase in typhoid fever has 
been much more rapid and can not be ascribed, to any considerable 
extent, to the addition of cases brought in by visitors during the fair. 
The witness then discussed the relation of typhoid to population in 
another way. Considering the figures given by Professor Jordan for 
the population of St. Louis, and supposing that the typhoid rate had 
remained 21.6, he stated that this population would have indicated 
about 130 deaths from typhoid in 1903, while the actual number was 
281. Thus it can be seen that the typhoid rate was in 1903 more 
than double what it was in 1899, while the population increased but a 
little over 10 per cent. (7945-7947.) 

It was the witness’s opinion that the conditions under which the 
experiments of Professors Zeit, Jordan, and Russell with reference to 
the longevity of the typhoid germ in polluted water were performed 
did not simulate natural conditions for the following reasons: Any 
sack lodged at one place will, if the osmotic conditions are as perfect as 
is supposed, receive the influence of sewage which is constantly 
fresher than that which would be in contact with the sack should the 
same be passing downstream. The results, to some extent, vary 
from earlier results obtained by various bacteriologists. In but 
three of Professor Jordan’s experiments in the drainage canal was 
the typhoid organism found at all after ten minutes had elapsed. 
Of these three, one is a recorded instance of its occurrence on the 
tenth day, which was attributed by Professor Jordan to the fact that 
bacteria, and especially the typhoid bacteria, may be dried against the 
neck or some part of the sack, and thus be subject to conditions fav¬ 
oring greater longevity. This the witness accepted as a possible 
explanation, but suggested another. It is a fact that if several forms 
of micro-organisms are in the water one of these forms will apparently 
mask others, as in the case of experiments with Bacillus coli and 
streptococci. In the earlier periods the former mask the latter so 
well that but few or none are seen, while later the streptococci develop 
much more abundantly and to an extent overgrow the coli. Later, 
however, the coli may again appear. In view of this principle, it 
may have been impossible in any of the earlier determinations of 
Professor Jordan to have detected the typhoid organism, although 
there is no conclusive proof that they were of necessity absent up to 
the time of this appearance on the tenth day, and the three typhoid 
colonies found may be ascribed to the fact that their presence was 
masked before that date. The other determinations of Professor 
Jordan, showing that the typhoid was certainly alive in two cases 


346 POLLUTION OP RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

after the second day, indicated that this germ will live at least this 
long; but the witness did not believe that they necessarily showed that 
it will not live longer. It seemed to him quite probable that the 
typhoid bacteria may have been incased in particles of fecal matter 
which were placed in the sack and thus have been preserved for a long 
period. The witness made the additional points that the experi¬ 
ments maintained in the canal and the waters of Illinois River did not 
apply to all seasons of the year and the results might have been quite 
different had the work continued throughout the year or been repeated 
at some other season than that which was selected. (7947-7949.) 

The evidence presented by Professors Jordan and Burrill on the 
colon tests, according to the witness, did not by any means show a 
total elimination of the B. coli in the waters of Illinois River. He 
granted that there was a reduction, but no point was reached at 
which there was an* elimination. These colon determinations are 
always subject to a great many conditions that frequently mask the 
bacilli, so that no reaction of them is given. In a river water it fre¬ 
quently happens that of two samples of equal volume taken from the 
same source at the same time one will give the positive and the other 
the negative reaction for coli, so that a negative reaction is by no 
means an indication of the absence of the germ. (7949-7950.) 

The witness testified to his familiarity with the Widal test, and 
stated that he had frequently made it in the laboratory and on several 
occasions in the office of the city board of health. He did not believe 
that the introduction of the Widal test had made any material change 
in the reports of typhoid mortality. There are some reasons for 
believing that it has reduced the number of deaths, because it results 
in an early diagnosis, which eliminates many cases of other fevers 
with similar symptoms. (7950.) 

CROSS-EXAMINATION. 

No new facts were brought out under cross-examination, but coun¬ 
sel for the defense made an argument in support of the rejection of all 
the evidence of the witness in regard to the record of the mortuary 
office on the ground that the testimony of the witness was not proper 
and competent evidence to impeach the official published reports of 
the health commissioner of St. Louis, for the reason that the published 
records of the mortuary office, if competent to impeach the published 
reports of the health officer, can not be proved in the manner testified 
to by the witness, but the records themselves should be presented in 
evidence; and further, that it was improper at that time to attempt to 
impeach the final reports of the health commissioner of St. Louis, 
which were relied on and testified from in the evidence in chief of the 
complainant’s witnesses and made a part of that evidence, and that it 
was not proper rebuttal, as the defendants had the right to rely on the 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 347 

official reports of the' health commissioner of St. Louis, and if such 
reports were incorrect and unreliable it was the duty of the com¬ 
plainant to make such proof in chief and not wait until the defendants 
had rested their case to introduce testimony of impeachment. 

WILLIAM THOMPSON SEDGWICK. 

William Thompson Sedgwick, recalled as a witness in rebuttal by 
the complainant, presented evidence concerning the correctness of 
deductions drawn from the statements of typhoid-fever deaths as per¬ 
centages of total deaths. The percentage mortality method elimi¬ 
nates altogether from the problem the question of population, and 
inasmuch as the population in many communities, especially between 
census years, is a most uncertain matter the value of the method is 
apparent. On the other hand, there is no doubt that under certain 
circumstances the method of stating the number of deaths as the rate 
per 100,000 furnishes more instructive and more accurate results. 
This is particularly true when the population is accurately known. 
In order to show that in the case of St. Louis it was immaterial whether 
the typhoid-fatality rate was stated according to the one method or 
the other, the witness presented two charts, the first showing the 
typhoid fatality in that city according to the number of deaths per 
100,000, and the second according to the percentage method. The 
marked similarity in the two curves led the witness to state that no 
misleading conclusion could be drawn from his original testimony, 
because either method would show the same essential facts. 
(7955-7959.) 

With reference to the statement in the testimony of Professor Jor¬ 
dan that the witness had incorrectly quoted the report of the rivers, 
pollution commission of Great Britain, he read from the original 
report as follows: “ There is no river in the United Kingdom long 
enough to secure the oxidation and destruction of any sewage which 
may be discharged into it, even at its source.” The witness said that 
the popular version of this statement is that “ there is no river in the 
United Kingdom long enough to purify itself,” and he believed that 
this statement would substantially represent the doctrine of sanitary 
. science at the time of testimony. (7959-7960.) 

The parchment and colloidin sack experiments of Professors Jor¬ 
dan, Russell, and Zeit on the longevity of typhoid bacteria when 
immersed in sewage-polluted water were then discussed by the wit¬ 
ness, who stated that he would not be able either to form or to formu¬ 
late a comprehensive opinion from them. They show that the germs 
survive for certain lengths of time, but he would be unable to conclude 
that under different conditions they might not survive for longer 
periods. In other words, the experiments were by no means con¬ 
clusive on the longevity of typhoid-fever germs. He stated that he 


348 POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 

did not see how it is possible in the present state of bacteriology to 
devise any series of experiments that would accurately imitate the 
infinitely varying conditions of running streams. The experiments 
were carried on in cold weather, but even if they had been continued 
over an entire year under all actual variations, they would still, in 
his judgment, have been incomplete for the reason that in other years 
under other conditions organisms as sensitive as the typhoid-fever 
germs might have encountered environments that would have mate¬ 
rially altered the results. Besides this, the experiments, to speak 
broadly, indicate a considerably shorter period of life than has been 
found by the majority of previous investigators. A greater number 
of experiments conducted for a longer period of time and under dif¬ 
ferent conditions would not, in his opinion, fail to show that typhoid- 
fever germs live for a very much longer time than was indicated by 
the experiments under discussion. They were undoubtedly well 
planned and executed, but it was easy to suggest a great number of 
points in which they had failed. The fact that the cells were anchored 
instead of being allowed to float down the stream was important. It 
can readily be seen that this is an unnatural condition, especially in 
the case of the Chicago drainage canal and Illinois River, for the 
reason that the chemical composition of these bodies of sewage and 
water is subject to frequent changes. If, for example, the waste 
from a large industrial plant shoidd be turned into Chicago River at 
any particular moment, the water which received it would vary mate¬ 
rially in chemical composition from that just preceding or just follow¬ 
ing. Again, the seasonal variations must be taken into consideration. 
The floods in the tributaries bring in new materials and new bacterial 
flora. The principal trouble was, in the opinion of the witness, that 
in trying to fix the longevity of typhoid-fever or any other microbes 
it is necessary to deal with extremely sensitive and almost infini¬ 
tesimal organisms which have been known at all only within the 
last few years and which are not yet by any means thoroughly known. 
(7960-7963.) 

He then referred to the testimony and charts introduced by Pro¬ 
fessor Mason in which it was asserted that there was no relation 
between the number of deaths from typhoid in Chicago and the num¬ 
ber in St. Louis, and stated that, taking into consideration the dis¬ 
tance between the two cities and the time required for the passage 
from Chicago to St. Louis and taking into consideration also the char¬ 
acter of the drainage canal and Illinois River and the fact that the 
water drawn from the intake at Chain of Rocks for public supply is 
subjected to extensive sedimentation, he would not expect to find any 
close correspondence between the typhoid-fever curves of the two 
cities. Consideration must also be given to the fact referred to by 
Professor Zeit in his testimony, namely, that typhoid germs arriving 


REBUTTAL TESTIMONY OF WILLIAM T. SEDGWICK. 349 

at St. Louis might act through the formation of local foci of infection, 
the time required for which must always be of uncertain duration. 
He would expect to find a correspondence between the prevalence of 
the disease in the two cities only when considerable periods were 
compared. It is, of course, probable that a very severe epidemic of 
typhoid in Chicago would make itself felt in St. Louis in such a way 
that cause and effect would be obvious, but here again much would 
depend on the season of the year, the rate of flow, local conditions of 
sewage, and the efficiency of sedimentation in the St. Louis basins. 
He did believe, however, that by taking long periods and averages 
definite relations were apparent, for example, as when comparing the 
rate of typhoid-fever deaths previous to 1900 with the rate for the 
years following. (7963-7964.) 

The witness also expressed doubts concerning the significance of 
the colon-bacillus tests made with the water of Illinois River by Pro¬ 
fessors Jordan and Burrill. While these do show a very great decline 
in the number of organisms present in the lower reaches of the river 
at the time when the experiments were performed and in those par¬ 
ticular samples, they do not in any sense enable one to form a correct 
idea as to the presence or absence of typhoid germs in the water at 
those points. Only a comparatively small number of specimens were 
examined, and from the nature of the case such specimens only imper¬ 
fectly represent the true and complete character of the stream at all 
times and seasons; moreover, the colon test is by no means a sure and 
perfect measure of the presence or absence of either the colon or the 
typhoid bacillus. He was of the opinion, therefore, that while the 
work of Professors Jordan and Burrill throws great light on the proc¬ 
ess of bacterial purification going on in Illinois River, it does not by 
any means establish the fact that typhoid infection is completely or 
effectively removed from the water of the river before it empties into 
the Mississippi at Grafton. (7965-7966.) 

The witness stated that he was thoroughly familiar with the tables 
introduced by E. E. Lochridge, because they had been prepared at 
his request and under his constant advice and supervision. He dis¬ 
cussed these tables and agreed with Mr. Lochridge concerning their 
significance. (7966-7969.) 

He then discussed the effect on the typhoid rate of the large number 
of visitors to expositions in cities. He cited his investigations with 
reference to the effect of the World’s Columbian Exposition and the 
Centennial Exposition of 1876 in Philadelphia, and expressed the 
opinion that no important portion of the increase in typhoid in St. 
Louis since January, 1900, can reasonably be attributed to the influx 
of workmen and visitors to the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 
(7969-7970.) 


350 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


The witness then stated that circulars sent by boards of health to 
physicians urging them to report cases of typhoid fever could have 
no influence on the reporting of deaths from the disease for the reason 
that physicians are legally bound to report deaths in any event 
before a burial permit can be obtained. (7970-7971.) 

The testimony of Professor Zeit in which he attributed extensive 
destructive effects on typhoid-fever germs to the toxic products of 
saprophytes in sewage was presented to the witness. He stated that 
while many authorities agree with Doctor Zeit, others do not accept that 
view, and he quoted an experiment made by himself and D. D. Jack- 
son in 1893 in which the very point under consideration was studied. 
A portion of sewage was very carefully freed from all microbes present, 
saprophytic or parasitic, by filtration. In this condition the sewage 
was free from all the living organisms, but contained their toxic 
products. A portion of this filtrate was then seeded with typhoid- 
fever microbes to the number of 329 per cubic centimeter. If the 
toxic products of the saprophytes had been capable of destroying 
typhoid germs, these would have gradually declined in number. 
The facts were, however, that one hour after inoculation there were 
333 per cubic centimeter, twenty-four hours later there were 63,198 
per cubic centimeter, and two days later they were innumerable. 
This specimen was kept at blood heat. The germs were carefully 
examined to make certain that they were true typhoid bacilli, and the 
culture was then placed in the ice chest. Six days later the number 
of typhoid germs had fallen to 888,000 per cubic centimeter; twelve 
days after the seeding the number present was 832,100; twenty days 
after, 375,000, and thirty-six days after, 56,500. These experi¬ 
ments had satisfied the witness that whether or not typhoid germs 
ultimately disappear in sewage they are not readily destroyed by the 
toxic products of saprophytes, but rather multiply and live long in 
their presence. The witness also cited a similar experiment of Doctor 
Horrocks in which abundant typlioid-fever germs were found in 
sewage filtered in the same way after forty-two days. (7971-7972.) 

The witness stated that he had examined all the chemical and 
bacteriological data introduced into evidence by the defendants, and 
while he had thereby obtained a much better knowledge of the proc¬ 
esses of chemical and bacterial purification going on at certain times 
and seasons in Illinois River, he had failed to discover any reason for 
changing his original opinion that the principal part of the increase 
of typhoid fever in St. Louis since January, 1900, has been due to 
the presence of deleterious elements contained in the public water 
supply derived from the unpurified sewage of the city of Chicago. 
(7973.) 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


351 


DECISION OF THE SUPREME COURT. 

The report of the testimony of which the above is a digest was pre¬ 
sented to the Supreme Court of the United States, with voluminous 
briefs and argun^ents by the parties to the suit, in the October term 
of 1905. The following is the full text of the opinion of the court, as 
rendered by Mr. Justice Holmes February 19, 1906: 

This is a suit brought by the State of Missouri to restrain the discharge of the sewage 
of Chicago through an artificial channel into the Desplaines River, in the State of 
Illinois. That river empties into the Illinois River, and the latter empties into the 
Mississippi at a point about forty-three miles above the city of St. Louis. It was 
alleged in the bill that the result of the threatened discharge would be to send fifteen 
hundred tons of poisonous filth daily into the Mississippi, to deposit great quantities 
of the same upon the part of the bed of the last-named river belonging to the plaintiff, 
and so to poison the water of that river, upon which various of the plaintiff’s cities, 
towns and inhabitants depended, as to make it unfit for drinking, agricultural, or 
manufacturing purposes. It was alleged that the defendant sanitary district was 
acting in pursuance of a statute of the State of Illinois and as an agency of that State 
The case is stated at length in ISO U. S. 208, where a demurrer to the bill was over¬ 
ruled. A supplemental bill alleges that since the filing of the original bill the drainage 
canal has been opened and put into operation and has produced and is producing all 
the evils which were apprehended when the injunction first was asked. The answers 
deny the plaintiff’s case, allege that the new plan sends the water of the Illinois River 
into the Mississippi much purer than it was before, that many towns and cities of the 
plaintiff along the Missouri and Mississippi discharge their sewage into those rivers, 
and that if there is any trouble the plaintiff must look nearer home for the cause. 

The decision upon the demurrer discussed mainly the jurisdiction of the Court, and, 
as leave to answer was given when the demurrer was overruled, naturally there was 
no very precise consideration of the principles of law to be applied if the plaintiff 
should prove its case. That was left to the future with the general intimation that the 
nuisance must be made out upon determinate and satisfactory evidence, that it 
must not be doubtful and. that the danger must be shown to be real and immediate. 
The nuisance set forth in the bill was one which would be of international importance— 
a visible change of a great river from a pure stream into a polluted and poisoned ditch. 
The only question presented was whether as between the States of the Union this 
Court was competent to deal with a situation which, if it arose between independent 
sovereignties, might lead to war. Whatever differences of opinion there might be 
upon matters of detail, the jurisdiction and authority of this Court to deal with such a 
case as that is not open to doubt. But the evidence now is in, the actual facts have 
required for their establishment the most ingenious experiments, and for their inter¬ 
pretation the most subtle speculations, of modern science, and therefore it becomes 
necessary at the present stage to consider somewhat more nicely than heretofore how 
the evidence it is to be approached. 

The first question to be answered was put in the well-known case of the Wheeling 
bridge. Pennsylvania v. Wheeling & Belmont Bridge Co., 13 How. 518. In that 
case, also, there was a bill brought by a State to restrain a public nuisance, the erec¬ 
tion of a bridge alleged to obstruct navigation, and a supplemental bill to abate it 
after it was erected. The question was put most explicitly by the dissenting judges 
but it was accepted by all as fundamental. The Chief Justice observed that if the 
bridge was a nuisance it was an offence against the sovereignty whose laws had 
been violated, and he asked what sovereignty that was. 13 How. 561. Daniel, J., 
13 How. 599. (See also Kansas v. Colorado , 185 U. S. 125.) It could not be Vir¬ 
ginia, because that State had purported to authorize it by statute. The Chief Jus- 


352 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


tice found no prohibition by the United States. 13 How. 580. No third source of 
law was suggested by any one. The majority accepted the Chief Justice’s postulate, 
and found an answer in what Congress had done. 

It hardly was disputed that Congress could deal with the matter under its power 
to regulate commerce. The majority observed that although Congress had not 
declared in terms that a State should not obstruct the navigation of the Ohio, by 
bridges, yet it had regulated navigation upon that river in various ways and had 
sanctioned the compact between Virginia and Kentucky when Kentucky was let 
into the Union. By that compact the use and navigation of the Ohio, so far as the 
territory of either State lay thereon, was to be free and common to the citizens of the 
United States. The compact, by the sanction of Congress, had become a law of the 
Union. A State law which violated it was unconstitutional. Obstructing the navi¬ 
gation of the river was said to violate it, and it was added that more was not neces¬ 
sary to give a civil remedy for an injury done by the obstruction. 13 How. 565, 566. 
At a later stage of the case, after Congress had authorized the bridge, it was stated 
again in so many words that the ground of the former decision was that “the act of 
the legislature of Virginia afforded no authority or justification. It was in conflict 
with the acts of Congress, which were the paramount law.” 18 How. 421, 429. 

In the case at bar, whether Congress could act or not, there is no suggestion that 
it has forbidden the action of Illinois. The only ground on which that State’s con¬ 
duct can be called in question is one which must be implied from the words of the 
Constitution. The Constitution extends the judicial power of the United States to 
controversies between two or more States and between a State and citizens of another 
State, and gives this Court original jurisdiction in cases in which a State shall be a 
party. Therefore, if one State raises a controversy with another, this Court must 
determine whether there is any principle of law and, if any, what, on which the 
plaintiff can recover. But the fact that this Court must decide does not mean, of 
course, that it takes the place of a legislature. Some principles it must have power 
to declare. For instance, when a dispute arises about boundaries, this Court must 
determine the line, and in doing so must be governed by rules explicitly or implicitly 
recognized. Rhode Island v. Massachusetts , 12 Pet. 657, 737. It must follow and 
apply those rules, even if legislation of one or both of the States seems to stand in 
the way. But the words of the Constitution would be a narrow ground upon which 
to construct and apply to the relations between States the same system of municipal 
law in all its details which would be applied between individuals. If we suppose a 
case which did not fall within the power of Congress to regulate, the result of a decla¬ 
ration of rights by this Court would be the establishment of a rule which would be 
irrevocable by any power except that of this Court to reverse its own decision, an 
amendment of the Constitution, or possibly an agreement between the States sanc¬ 
tioned by the legislature of the United States. 

The difficulties in the way of establishing such a system of law might not be insu¬ 
perable, but they would be great and new. Take the question of prescription in a 
case like the present. The reasons on which prescription for a public nuisance is 
denied or may be granted to an individual as against the sovereign power to which 
he is subject have no application to an independent State. See 1 Oppenheim, Inter¬ 
national Law, 293, §§ 242, 243. It would be contradicting a fundamental principle 
of human nature to allow no effect to the lapse of time, however long, Davis v. Mills, 
194 U. S. 451, 457, yet the fixing of a definite time usually belongs to the legislature 
rather than the courts. The courts did fix a time in the rule against perpetuities, 
but the usual course, as in the instances of statutes of limitation, the duration of pat¬ 
ents, the age of majority, etc., is to depend upon the lawmaking power. 

It is decided that a case such as is made by the bill may be a ground for relief. 
The purpose of the foregoing observations is not to lay a foundation for departing 
from that decision, but simply to illustrate the great and serious caution with which 


DECISION OF THE SUPREME COURT. 


353 


it is necessary to approach the question whether a case is proved. It may be 
imagined that a nuisance might be created by a State upon a navigable river like 
the Danube, which would amount to a casus belli for a State lower down, unless 
removed. If such a nuisance were created by a State upon the Mississippi the con¬ 
troversy would be resolved by the more peaceful means of a suit in this Court. But 
it does not follow that every matter which would warrant a resort to equity by one 
citizen against another in the same jurisdiction equally would warrant an interfer¬ 
ence by this Court with the action of a State. It hardly can be that we should be 
warranted in declaring statutes ordaining such action void in every instance where 
the circuit court might intervene in a private suit, upon no other ground than anal¬ 
ogy to some selected system of municipal law, and the fact that we have jurisdiction 
over controversies between States. 

The nearest analogy would be found in those cases in which an easement has been 
declared in favor of land in one State over land in another. But there the right is 
recognized on the assumption of a concurrence between the two States, the one, so 
to speak, offering the right, the other permitting it to be accepted. Mannville Cc. 
v. Worcester, 138 Mass. 89. But when the State itself is concerned and by its legis¬ 
lation expressly repudiates the right set up, an entirely different question is presented. 

Before this Court ought to intervene the case should be of serious magnitude, 
clearly and fully proved, and the principle to be applied should be one which the 
Court is prepared deliberately to maintain against all considerations on the other 
side. See Kansas v. Colorado, 185 U. S. 125. 

As to the principle to be laid down the caution necessary is manifest. It is a ques¬ 
tion of the first magnitude whether the destiny of the great rivers is to be the sewers 
of the cities along their banks or to be protected against everything which threatens 
their purity. To decide the whole matter at one blow by an irrevocable fiat would be 
at least premature. If we are to judge by what the plaintiff itself permits, the dis¬ 
charge of sewage into the Mississippi by cities and towns is to be expected. We believe 
that the practice of discharging into the river is general along its banks, except where 
the levees of Louisiana have led to a different course. The argument for the plaintiff 
asserts it to be proper within certain limits. These are facts to be considered. Even 
in cases between individuals some consideration is given to the practical course of 
events. In the black country of England parties would not be expected to stand upon 
extreme rights. St. Helen’s Smelting Co. v. Tipping, 11 H. L. C. 642. See Boston 
Ferrule Co. v. Hills, 159 Mass. 147, 150. Where, as here, the plaintiff has sovereign 
powers and deliberately permits discharges similar to those of which it complains, it 
not only offers a standard to which the defendant has the right to appeal, but, as some 
of those discharges are above the intake of St. Louis, it warrants the defendant in 
demanding the strictest proof that the plaintiff’s own conduct does not produce the 
result, or at least so conduce to it that courts should not be curious to apportion the 
blame. 

We have studied the plaintiff’s statement of the facts in detail and have perused the 
evidence, but it is unnecessary for the purposes of decision to do more than give the gen¬ 
eral result in a very simple way. At the outset we can not but be struck by the con¬ 
sideration that if this suit had been brought fifty years ago it almost necessarily would 
have failed. There is no pretense that there is a nuisance of the simple kind that was 
knowm to the older common law. There is nothing which can be detected by the unas¬ 
sisted senses—no visible increase of filth, no new smell. On the contrary, it is proved 
that the great volume of pure water from Lake Michigan which is mixed with the sew¬ 
age at the start has improved the Illinois River in these respects to a noticeable extent. 
Formerly it was sluggish and ill smelling. Now it is a comparatively clear stream 
to which edible fish have returned. Its water is drunk by the fishermen, it is said 
without evil results. The plaintiff’s case depends upon an inference of the unseen. 



354 


POLLUTION OF RIVERS BY CHICAGO SEWAGE. 


It draws the inference from two propositions. First, that typhoid fever has increased 
considerably since the change and that other explanations have been disproved, and 
second, that the bacillus of typhoid can and does survive the journey and reach the 
intake of St. Louis in the Mississippi. 

We assume the now prevailing scientific explanation of typhoid fever to be correct. 
But when we go beyond that assumption everything is involved in doubt. The data 
upon which an increase in the deaths from typhoid fever in St. Louis is alleged are dis¬ 
puted. The elimination of other causes is denied. The experts differ as to the time 
and distance within which a stream would purify itself. No case of an epidemic caused 
by infection at so remote a source is brought forward and the cases which are produced 
are controverted. The plaintiff obviously must be cautious upon this point, for if this 
suit should succeed many others would follow, and it not improbably would find itself 
a defendant to a bill by one or more of the States lower down upon the Mississippi. 
The distance which the sewage has to travel (357 miles) is not open to debate, but the 
time of transit to be inferred from experiments with floats is estimated at varying 
from eight to eighteen and a half days, with forty-eight hours more from intake to dis¬ 
tribution, and when corrected by observations of bacteria is greatly prolonged by the 
defendants. The experiments of the defendants’ experts lead them to the opinion 
that a typhoid bacillus could not survive the journey, while those on the other side 
maintain that it might live and keep its power for twenty-five days or more, and arrive 
at St. Louis. Upon the question at issue, whether the new discharge from Chicago 
hurts St. Louis, there is a categorical contradiction between the experts on the two 
sides. 

The Chicago drainage canal was opened on January 17, 1900. The deaths from 
typhoid fever in St. Louis, before and after that date, are stated somewhat differently 
in different places. We give them mainly from the plaintiff's brief: 1890, 140; 1891, 
165; 1892, 441; 1893, 215; 1894, 171; 1895, 106; 1896, 106; 1897, 125; 1898, 95; 1899, 
131; 1900, 154; 1901, 181; 1902, 216; 1903, 281. It is argued for the defendants that 
the numbers for the later years have been enlarged by carrying over cases which in 
earlier years would have been put into a miscellaneous column (intermittent, remit¬ 
tent, typho-malaria, etc., etc.), but we assume that the increase is real. Nevertheless, 
comparing the last four years with the earlier ones, it is obvious that the ground for a 
specific inference is very narrow, if we stopped at this point. The plaintiff argues 
that the increase must be due to Chicago, since there is nothing corresponding to it in 
the watersheds of the Missouri or Mississippi. On the other hand, the defendants point 
out that there has been no such enhanced rate of typhoid on the banks of the Illinois 
as would have been found if the opening of the drainage canal were the true cause. 

Both sides agree that the detection of the typhoid bacillus in the water is not to be 
expected. But the plaintiff relies upon proof that such bacilli are discharged into 
the Chicago sewage in considerable quantities; that the number of bacilli in the water 
of the Illinois is much increased, including the Bacillus coli communis , which is 
admitted to be an index of contamination, and that the chemical analyses lead to the 
same inference. To prove that the typhoid bacillus could make the journey an expe¬ 
riment was tried with the Bacillus prodigiosus, which seems to have been unknown, 
or nearly unknown, in these waters. After preliminary trials, in which these bacilli 
emptied into the Mississippi near the mouth of the Illinois were found near the St. 
Louis intake and in St. Louis in times varying from three days to a month, 107 barrels 
of the same, said to contain 1,000,000,000 bacilli to the cubic centimeter, were put 
into the drainage canal near the starting point on November 6, and on December 4 
an example was found at the St. Louis intake tower. Four others were found on the 
three following days, two at the tower and two at the mouth of the Illinois. As this 
bacillus is asserted to have about the same length of life in sunlight in living waters 
as the Bacillus typhosus , although it is a little more hardy, the experiment is thought 
to prove one element of the plaintiff’s case, although the very small number found 


DECISION OF THE SUPREME COURT. 


355 


in many samples of water is thought by the other side to indicate that practically no 
typhoid geims would get through. It seems to be conceded that the purification of 
the Illinois by the large dilution from Lake Michigan (nine parts or more in ten) 
would increase the danger, as it now generally is believed that the bacteria of decay, 
the saprophytes, which flourish in stagnant pools, destroy the pathogenic germs. Of 
course the addition of so much water to the Illinois also increases its speed. 

On the other hand, the defendants’ evidence shows a reduction in the chemical and 
bacterial accompaniments of pollution in a given quantity of water, which would be 
natural in view of the mixture of nine parts to one from Lake Michigan. It affirms 
that the Illinois is better or no worse at its mouth than it was before, and makes it at 
least uncertain how much of the present pollution is due to Chicago and how much 
to sources further down, not complained of in the bill. It contends that if any bacilli 
should get through they would be scattered and enfeebled and would do no harm. 
The defendants also set against the experiment with the Bacillus prodigiosus a no 
less striking experiment with typhoid germs suspended in the Illinois River in per¬ 
meable sacks. According to this the duration of the life of these germs has been much 
exaggerated, and in that water would not be more than three or four days. It is sug¬ 
gested, by way of criticism, that the germs may not have been of normal strength, 
that the conditions were less favorable than if they had floated down in a compara¬ 
tively unchanging body of water, and that the germs may have escaped, but the 
experiment raises at least a serious doubt. Further, it hardly is denied that there is 
no parallelism in detail between the increase and decrease of typhoid fever in Chicago 
and St. Louis. The defendants’ experts maintain that the water of the Missouri is 
worse than that of the Illinois, while it contributes a much larger proportion to the 
intake. The evidence is very strong that it is necessary for St. Louis to take pre¬ 
ventive measures, by filtration or otherwise, against the dangers of the plaintiff’s own 
creation or from other sources than Illinois. What will protect against one will pro¬ 
tect against another. The presence of causes of infection from the plaintiff’s action 
makes the case weaker in principle as well as harder to prove than one in which all 
came from a single source. 

Some stress was laid on the proposition that Chicago is not on the natural watershed 
of the Mississippi, because of a rise of a few feet between the Desplaines and the Chicago 
rivers. We perceive no reason for a distinction on this ground. The natural features 
relied upon are of the smallest. And if under any circumstances they could affect 
the case, it is enough to say that Illinois brought Chicago into the Mississippi water¬ 
shed in pursuance not only of its own statutes, but also of the acts of Congress of March 
30, 1822, c. 14, 3 St. 659, and March 2, 1827, c. 51, 4 St. 234, the validity of which is 
not disputed. Wisconsin v. Duluth, 96 U. S. 379. Of course these acts do not grant 
the right to discharge sewage, but the case stands no differently in point of law from 
a suit because of the discharge from Peoria into the Illinois, or from any other or all 
the other cities on the banks of that stream. 

We might go more into detail, but we believe that we have said enough to explain 
our point of view and our opinion of the evidence as it stands. What the future may 
develop of course we can not tell. But our conclusion upon the present evidence is 
that the case proved falls so far below the allegations of the bill that it is not brought 
within the principles heretofore established in the cause. 

Bill dismissed without prejudice. 

True copy. 

Test: 

Clerk Supreme Court, U. S. 



f 


INDEX. 


A. 


Page. 


Albany, N. Y., filtration at. 242-243 

typhoid and malaria at. 242-243 

Alton, Bacillus coli communis at. 185,206,223 

bacteria near. 22, 

25,26,31,37,185,205,206,211,223 
Illinois and Mississippi waters at, pro¬ 
portions of. 96 

micro-organisms near.94-95 

river water at, ammonia in. 66 

analyses of. 54-57, 

66-67,87,162,185,188,190,211 

chlorine in.67,96 

nitrites in. 66,79,96 

quality of. 42,59 

sewage of.36,79 

effect of, at Hartford. 37 

Alvord, J. W., qualifications of... 330-331 

testimony of. 331-339 

American Association for Advancement of 

Science, analytical methods of. 74 
American Public Health Association, stand¬ 
ard methods of. 20,226 

Ammonia, canal opening and, relations of.. 64-65, 

70,75,83-86,193 

occurrence of. 66,75,76,80-81 

chart showing. 215 

significance of.74,197 

Analysis, methods of. 166-167,200-201 

value of. 199-200, 

239-240,245,254-255,294-295,322-324 

variations in. 200-201,245 

Ann Arbor, Mich., typhoid and malaria at.. 297 

Asterionella, occurrence and tracing of.94-95 

Averyville, Bacillus coli communis at. 206, 

223,224,228,229,260 
Bacillus coli communis at, derivation of. 283 

bacteria at. 182-183,203, 

204,206,210,216,223,226,260-261 

river water at, ammonia in. 66,215 

analyses of. 54-57, 

66-67,184,188,189,195,210 

chlorine in. 67,214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

nitrites in. 66 

quality of. 182-183,193,197,209,213,286 

B. 

Bacillus coli communis, Bacillus typhosus 

and, comparison of. 221-222 

description of. 221 

injection of. 268 

investigation for. 20,208,223-225 


Page. 

Bacillus coli communis—Continued. 

longevity of. 221-222,233,238,276-277,346 

experiments on. 221-222, 

235-238,276-277,280 

longevity of Bacillus typhosus and, rela¬ 
tion of. 221-222 

occurrence of. 23-26,37,185,186,203, 

206,223,227-229,260,272,279,283 

significance of. 97-98, 

222-223,227,258,279,288,292 

Bacillus prodigiosus, description of.37-38 

experiments with. 38-39, 

97,110,176-178,232,281 

significance of.^. 100-101,110, 

177-178,247,276,281,291-292,354-355 

identification of. 231,247,265,267,292 

longevity of. 39,97,100,207,232,247,265,276 

longevity of Bacillus typhosus and... 39-40, 

97,232,247,265,276,291,354 

occurrence of. 39,132,186,231,265,307 

Bacillus typhi abdominalis, longevity of.. 309-310 
Bacillus typhosus, accumulation of, in 

mud..*.. 109,139, 

243,253-254,266,280,287,295,302 

destruction of. 40-41, 

101-102,234-235, 238, 246, 248,253, 
257,263-266,276,278,282,285,288- 
290, 292, 302, 307-308,325-326, 350 

dilution and, effect of. 99, 

105,107,180,325,333,337 

effect of sewage pollution on. 102,238, 

246,248,253,257,264-266,268- 
270, 276, 278, 282,285,289-290, 
292, 302, 307-308, 325-326, 350 

identification of, in running water. 99, 

181,232,264,267,354 

in sediments. 238,253-254 

filtration and. 221 

injection of, effects of. 268 

laboratory tests on, actual conditions 

and. 35,40,101,233,235-237, 

248,267-268,276-277,292,308,345 

longevity of, effect of boiling on. 222 

effect of cold on... 155-156,221-222,267-268 

effect of saprophytic bacteria on_ 238, 

248,265-266,268-270,276,278,282 
effect of water bacteria on.. 40,41,101,263 

experiments on. 34-35,39-40, 

101,155-156,235-238,248-253,268- 
270, 287, 290, 325-326, 328, 345-347 

with parchment sacks. 235-236, 

248-252,268-270,290, 
325-326, 345-346, 355 


357 




























































358 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Bacillus typhosus—Continued, 
longevity of—Continued. 


in Chicago River. 252,268-270 

in darkness. 39,41 

in Desplaines River. 277,292 

in drainage canal. 236-237, 


248,252,266,277,292 

in Illinois River. 96,119,202, 

237, 248, 250-253, 256,265-270,277, 
282, 287, 289, 290, 292, 293, 295, 311 


in Lake Michigan. 252,268-270,282 

in polluted water... 35,39,102,108-109,119, 
202,232,236,238,246-248,253,264- 
270, 276, 278, 282,285,287,289-290, 
292, 295, 302,307-308, 325-326, 350 

in pure water. 39,155-156, 

247,252,253,276,282,292,332-333 

in running water. 34-35,39- 

40, 41, 96, 98,101,109,119,142,202, 
233, 236, 246, 248,267-270,276,280, 
287, 307, 325-327, 345-346, 354, 355 

in sediments. 109,136,139,243, 

253-254,266,280,287,295,302,324 

identification of. 238,253-254 

in soil. 238,247-248,253-254,276,278,294 

in stagnant waiter. 40 

in sterilized water. 34, 

35,39,41,222,233,292,307 

in sunlight. 34-35,39-41 

in turbid water.;_ 40 

longevity of Bacillus coli communis and. 221- 

222,268 

longevity of Bacillus prodigiosus and, 

comparison of. 39-40, 

* 97,232,247,265,276,291 

multiplication of. 263-264,289 

occurrence of. See particular places, 
streams, etc. 

significance of. 282 

sedimentation of. See Bacillus typho¬ 
sus, longevity of; Bacteria, 
sedimentation of; Sediments; 
Sedimentation. 


transmission of, by ice. 268 

by water, distance of. 47,112, 

118,138,139,142,202,265,302,354 

floods and, relations of. 42, 

43,96,109,114,136,240-241,243,280 

from Chicago to St. Louis. 40-42, 

96, 108, 111, 113-115,127-128, 
139-141,156,178,202,244,256- 
257, 266-268, 270, 278,281-282, 
289-290, 313, 323-324, 334-336 
See also Flow, rate of; Illi¬ 
nois River, flow in. 

instances of. 109-113, 

118,123-124,137-139,354 
time and distance of, relative 

effects of. 112,118,180,354 

time of. 96,136,138,142,202,257,303 


weakening effect of. 280,302,355 

vitality of. 280,282,302 


See also St. Louis, typhoid fever at; 
Typhoid fever. 


Page. 


Bacteria, estimation of, method of. 186 

identification of... 230-231,247,265,267,288,292 

longevity of. 100 

occurrence of, significance of... 97,101,264,294 
See also particular streams, places, 
etc. 

relations of micro-organisms and. 99 

relations of sewage and. 102 

sedimentation of. 135-136,249,277,292-293 

species of, encountered in work. 23, 

27,230,260-261 

survival of, relations of time and dis¬ 
tance to. 112,118 

transmission of, Chicago to St. Louis. 

See Bacillus typhosus, Bacil¬ 
lus prodigiosus. 

See also particular bacilli. 

Bacteria, pathogenic, destruction of.. 234-235,263 

longevity of. 263-265 

occurrence of. 260-265 

species of. 260- 

See also Bacillus coli communis; Bacil¬ 
lus typhosus. 

Bacteria, saprophytic, effect of, on typhoid 

germs. 238,248, 

265,266,268-270,276,278,282,355 
Bacteria, water, effect of, on typhoid bacilli. 40, 

41,101,263-264 

Bacterial purity, definition of. 186 

Bacteriologic examinations, methods of.... 186 

value of. 109,186, 


199,239-240.245,254.294-295,324 


Barker, L. F., qualifications of. 301 

testimony of. 301-303 

Baton Rouge, La., sewage of, purification of. 274 
Bear Trap dam, Bacillus coli communis at.. 224 

bacteria at. 25,28-29,33 

description of. 16 

lowering of, effect of. 333 

water at, ammonia in. 66 

analyses of. 54-57,66-67 

chlorine in. 67 

nitrites in. 66 

solids in suspension in. 137 

Beardstown, Ill., Bacillus coli communis 

at.7. 185,206 

bacteria at... 185,204,206,211,216 

river water at, ammonia in. 66,162,215 

analyses of. 66-67,162,185,188,189,211 

chlorine in.67,214 

nitrites in. 66 

Berlin, sewage of, purification of. 102,266 

typhoid fever in. 45 

Bisbee, D. B., work of. 182 

Bissels Point, intake at, removal of. 43, 

45,110,125,339-340 

reservoirs at. 24 

water of, bacteria in.25,26 

Boiling, effect of, on typhoid germs. 222 

Boston, typhoid rate at. 110 

Boston Ferrule Co. v. Hills, citation of. 353 

Bremer, Ludwig, testimony of. 321 

Bridgeport, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at 184,260 
bacteria at. 182,184,204,210,260-261 








































































INDEX. 


359 


1'age. 

Bridgeport, Ill.—Continued. 

river water at, ammonia in.66, 161,162 

analyses of. 66-67, 

161,162,168,171,184,188,189,210 

chlorine in.•. 67 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

nitrites in. 66 

quality of. 182-183,208 

Bright, F. C., testimony taken by. 10 

Buffalo, N. Y., typhoid fever at. 112,305 

Burrill, T. J., qualifications of. 203 

testimony of. 203-207 

Butler, Pa., typhoid at. 254 


C. 


Calumet River, population tributary to_ 15 

reversal of flow of. 147 

Casey, Peter, testimony of. 144 

Celloidin sacks, typhoid experiments in. See 
Sacks. 

Chain of Rocks, bacteriological laboratory 

at. 20 

See also Intake. 

Chandlerville, Ill., Bacillus coli communis 

at. 185,206,223 

bacteria at. 185,204,206,211,223 

river water at, analysis of_ 185,188,189,211 

quality of. 213 

Chicago, area of. 11 

dilution at.8,134,172 

amount of. 7,8,36,51-52,70,113,148,153-154 

effect of, on Illinois River. 68,80,108, 

113,137,150,249,287,293,311,324 

on Mississippi River. 8, 

105,234,249,287,324 

on sedimentation. 233-234,293,311 

quality of. 113,134 

variations in degree of. 128 

dilution at Detroit and, comparison of. 138-139 

population of. 14,35,36,114-116,148,149 

sewage of. See Sewage, Chicago. 

sewers of, description of... 12-13,134 

flushing of. 157,332 

stockyards at, sewage from. 165 

tap water at, bacteria in. 205,260-261 

pollution in. 157 

topography of. 11,355 

typhoid fever at, records of. 11, 45,110,122,331 
relation between typhoid at St. 

Louis and.. 240,278-279,290,305,306, 
335-336,338,339-340,348-349,355 

water supply of, investigation of.160-161 

pollution of. 105,157,186-187 

See also Michigan, Lake, water of. 

Chicago drainage canal. See Drainage 
canal. 

Chicago River, description of. 12 

dilution of. See Chicago, dilution at. 

flow of. 1^9 

improvement of. 113 

population tributary to. 14 

pumping from. 8,12 

pumping into. 12 


Page. 

Chicago River—Continued. 

sewage in. 6,8,12 

flushing out of. 68,157 

typhoid longevity in. 252,268-270 

water of, analyses of. 66-67 

quality of. 209 

See also Drainage canal. 

Chickamauga, typhoid and malaria at. 297 

Chlorine, effect of, on pathogenic bacteria . 307-310 

occurrence of. 59,67,80,82,99,174 

amount of, figure showing. 214 

degree of mingling inferred from.... 196 

significance of. 97,99,179,213 

Cholera, transmission of. 115,281 

Cincinnati, Ohio, typhoid fever at_ 132,313-314 

Cities, minimum population of, used in sew- 

ag 'investigations. 95 r 

103,127-128 

Cities above St. Louis, population of. 95, 

103-105,115-116,127-128,151,315-317 

sewage of.9,115,127 

typhoid fever in. 10-11,45,110,116,122,331 

effect of, at St. Louis_115-116,121-122, 

129,142,280,290,331-332,334-336 

Cold, effect of, on typhoid germs. 155-156, 

221-222,267-268 

Complaint, bill of, answer to. 7-9 

summary of. 6-7 

Cooley, L. E., on flow of Illinois River... 50,70-71 

Copperas Creek, flow of. 51 

Counsel, list of. 10 

Covington, Ky., reservoir at. 313 

typhoid fever at. 115,132,313-314 

Crooked Creek, flow of. 159 

pollution on. 150 

Crookston, Minn., sewage of. 139 

typhoid at. 139 

Crow, E. C., appearance of, as counsel. 10 

Cumberland, Md., typhoid fever at. 123-124 

Current in Illinois and Mississippi rivers, 

direction of, observations on.. 18 

Cyclotella, occurrence and tracing of.94-95 

D. 

Dahinda, Ill., water at, analysis of. 168 

Dams, sedimentation and, relations of. 114 

See also Illinois River, dams in. 

Darkness, effect of, on typhoid germs.39,41 

Davis v. Mills, citation of. 352 

Death. See Mortality. 

Decomposition, bacteria of. See Bacteria, 
sacrophytic. 

See also Oxidation. 

Defendants, answer of. 7-9 

counsel and witnesses for. 10 

testimony for. 143-318 

Delaware River, longevity of bacteria in.. 308-310 

population, etc., along. 315 

Desplaines River, Bacillus coli communis in. 184, 

206,223 

bacteria in... 22,23,25,29, 

33,184,204,206,210,212,223 

chart showing. 216 

description of. 134 


















































































360 


INDEX 


Desplaiaes River—Continued. Page. 

discharge of sewage into. 8 

flow of. 146,159,233 

rate of. 17,51,71,134,151 

micro-organisms in. 94 

pollution of. 150 

profile of, plate showing. 150 

typhoid longevity in. 277,292 

water in, ammonia in. 82 

ammonia in, charts showing. 215 

analyses of. 54-57,66-67,87,161, 

168,184,188,189,194,210,212 

chlorine in. 82 

chart showing. 214 

nitrites in. 82 

quality of. 68,208 

Detroit, Mich., dilution at Chicago and, com¬ 
parison of. 138-139 

longevity of typhoid bacillus in epi¬ 
demic at. 96,118 

typhoid epidemic at... 109,118,137-138,243,281 
Diatoms, occurrence of. 93 


Dilution, effect of. 68,80,83,99,105, 

107-108,113,137,153-154,180,234 

effect of, on germs. 99,105, 

107,180,287,293,325,333,337,355 

on sedimentation. 233-234.293,311 

proportions of, offensive and nonoffen¬ 
sive. 154 

purification by. 8,42,105,107, 

180-181,234,249,275,277,293,310,311 

speed of flow increased by. 68 , 

80,108,129,137,334,355 
See also Chicago, dilution at. 

Disease, germs of, effect of dilution on. 99, 

105,107,180,287,293,325,333,337 

germs of, infection of water by. 107 

See also Bacteria, pathogenic, 
mortality from. See Mortality. 

Distilleries, wastes from. 144-145,150,193,209 

wastes from, effect of, on typhoid germs. 302 

Dock, George, qualifications of. 296-297 

testimony of. 297-300 

Drainage canal, Bacillus coli communis in . 223, 


225,260 


bacteria in. 22,25,28.40-41,204,212,223,260-261 

capacity of. 14,121,153 

closing of, effect of. 68 

construction of. 146 

controlling works of. 15-16,147 

cost of.8,147 

description of. 13-14,140-147 

effect of. See Sewage, Chicago, effect of. 
effect of Illinois and Michigan Canal and, 

comparison of. 67-68,131-132,199,337 

flow of. 14,17,108,122,148-150,155 

micro-organisms in. 94 

opening of, effect of. 42-45, 


68,83-87,89-91,142,198,342,354 
pollution of Illinois Itiver by, compar¬ 
ison of Illinois and Michigan 
Canal pollution and... 67,68,131-132 


problem of, study of. 152-153 

profile of, plate showing. 150 


relation of typhoid at St. Louis and. 
See St. Louis, typhoid at. 


Drainage canal—Continued. Page. 

septic tank and, comparison of. 284- 

285,322,336-337 

sewage in, accumulation of. 6,8, 43 

analyses of. 284-285 

constituents of. 172 

discharge of. 148-150 

oxidation of, point of. 68,80 

typhoid longevity in. 236- 

237,248,252,266,270,277,292 

water of, ammonia in. 82 

analyses of. 66-67,82,171,194.212 

chlorine in. 82 

dilution of. See Chicago, dilution 
at. 

effect of, bacteriological tests of.19-47 

on guinea pigs. 262 

nitrites in. 82 

quality of. 209 

Dredging, relation of typhoid and... 46,138 

See also Sediments. 

Drennan, J. G., appearance of, as counsel.. 10 

Dupage River, pollution of. 150 

water of, analysis of. 163,168 


E. 


Easement, analogy of 


353 


F. 


Fevers, character and diagnosis of... 241-243,255- 

256.297-301,303-304, 
306, 318-320, 329, 342 


See also Malaria: Typhoid. 

Filtration, object of. 328,337-339 

See also St. Louis, water of, filtration of. 

Fischel, W. E., qualifications of.319-320 

testimony of. 320-322 

Fish, Bacillus coli communis in. 98 

return of, to Illinois River. 353 

Fish, dead, number of, at Lockport. 36 

Floats, description of. 16-17 

use of. 17-19,151 

Floods, effect of, in Illinois River. 117, 


144,136,175,243,281,293,312 
effect of, on transmission of bacteria_ 42, 


43,96,109,114,136 

on typhoid fever.'240-241,243,281 

See also Sediments. 

Flow, effect of dilution on... 68,80,108,129,137,334 
profile of, from Chicago to St. Louis, 


plate showing. 150 

rate of. See particular streams. 

relations of sedimentation and. 99 , 

233-234,293,311 

time of, from Chicago to St. Louis. 16-19, 


41-42, 96, 128, 137, 138, 
151, 156, 247, 333-334, 354 
See also Illinois River, flow in. 

Fort Bellefontaine, Bacillus coli communis 


at. 206,223,228,229 

bacteria at. 22 , 

23, 25, 26, 32, 42, 183, 

185,205,206,211,223,226 

micro-organisms at.. 95 

river water at, ammonia in. 66 














































































INDEX. 


361 


Fort Bellefontaine—Continued. Page, 

river water at—Continued. 

analyses of. 54-57,66-67,89,185,189,190,211 

after opening canal.85,87 

before opening canal.85,87 

chlorine in. 67 

nitrites in. 66,91 

quality of. 91 

total solids in. 60-63 

Port Snelling, Minn., typhoid fever . 305 

Fox River, Bacillus coli communis in. 184, 

206,223,224,260 

bacteria in. 184,204,206,223,260-261 

flow of. 51,71,159 

pollution of. 150 

water of, analyses of.. 168,171,184,188,189,194 
experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

quality of. 169,213 

Freeman, J. R., on water consumption. 271 

Freezing, effect of, on typhoid germs. 155-156 

Fuller, G. W., qualifications of. 124 

testimony of. 124-133 


G. 

Galveston, Tex., typhoid and malaria at... 297 

Garfield avenue, St. Louis, tap water at. 24,25,26 

Gehrmann, Adolph, qualifications of. 181 

testimony of. 181-187 

Geneva Lake, typhoid germs in sediments 

at. 238,253-254 

Goodman, C. H., testimony of. 321 

Grafton, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at and 

near.... 185,206,223,224,228,229,260 

bacteria at and near. 22,23, 

. 25,26,30,31,32,34, 42,183,185,203, 
204, 206, 211, 216, 223, 226, 260-261 

bacteriological laboratory at. 23,208,225 

effect of drainage canal at. 34,80,164,167, 

224,234,250,281,286,289,293,313 

effect of Peoria sewage at. 36,58 

river w^ater at and near, ammonia in... 66 , 

81-82,162,215 

analyses of. 52-57,66-67,86-87,162,164, 

168,171,173,185,188,189,190,211 


after opening canal.86,87 

before opening canal.... 86,87,162,164 

chlorine in. 67,82,196,214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 263 

nitrites in. 66,79,81 

potability of. 72-73,286,293 


quality of. 42,58-59,68,83,128-129,169, 

170,197,213,221,286,293,295,322 
Grand Forks, N. Dak., typhoid epidemic at. 139 
Great Britain, self-purification in. 111,234-235,347 
Guinea pigs, experiments on. 262-263 

H. 


Hamlin, H. J., appearance of, as counsel... 10 

Harlem Creek, pollution from. 43,45 

Harman, J. G., on flow of Illinois River. 70-71,158 

qualifications of. 158 

testimony of. 158 

Hartford, Ill., bacteria at. 22,23,25,26,31,37 

effect of Alton sewage at... 37 

Illinois and Mississippi waters at, pro¬ 
portions of.96,197 


Hartford, Ill.—Continued. Page. 

river water at, ammonia in. 66 

analyses of. 54,66-67,85 

after canal opening. 85 

before canal opening. 85 

chlorine in.67,96 

nitrites in. 60,79,96 

quality of. 42,59,197 

total solids in. 60-63 

Hastings, E. G., testimony of. 258 

Havana, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at_ 184, 

206,223,260 

bacteria at.... 184,204,206,211,216,223,260-261 

river water at, ammonia in. 162,215 

analyses of. 162,168,171,184,188,189,195,211 

chlorine in. 214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 263 

quality of.. 193 

typhoid fever at. li 

Hazen, Allen, qualifications of.*. 103-104 

testimony of. 104-106 

Hektoen, Ludwig, qualifications and testi¬ 
mony of. 246 

Henry, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at. 184, 

206,223,260 

bacteria at. 183,184, 

204,206,210,216,223,260-261 

dam at, flow at. 51 

river water at, ammonia in. 162,215 

analyses of.... 162,168,171,184,188,189,210 

chlorine in. 214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

Herget, C. G., testimony of...!. 144 

Hering, Rudolph, qualifications of. 152 

testimony of. 152-157 

Hill, J. W., qualifications of. 306-307 

testimony of. 307-318 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, opinion of. 351-355 

Homer, -, Bacillus prodigiosus found 

by. 39 

Hudson River, typhoid on. 281 


I. 


Ice, transmission of typhoid fever by. 268 

Illinois, relations of sanitary district and... 7 

sanction of canal by. 6 

Illinois, Steamboat, use of. 143 

Illinois and Michigan Canal, Bacillus coli 

communis in. 184,206,223 

bacteria in. 25,131-132,182,184,204,210,223 

description of. 145-146 

flow of.51,71,146,150 

pollution of Illinois River by.52,83 

comparison of drainage canal pollu¬ 
tion and. 67-68,131-132 

pumping for..8,12,13,15,51,146,148 

septic tank and, comparison of. 131-132 

water of, analyses of. 66-67, 


87,161,168,171,184,188,189 


change in, on opening canal. 193 

quality of. 146,194,208 


Illinois River, Bacillus coli communis in.... 184, 

185,206,223,224,228,229,260 

bacteria in. 22,23,25,26,30,32,34,40,42, 

47,136,183-185,203-204,206,210- 
221,223,226,230,231,260-261,312 






















































































362 


INDEX 


Page. 

Illinois River—Continued, 
bacteria in—Continued. 

charts showing. 216 

basin of, population of. 36, 

115-116,149-150,315-317 

population of, sewage of. 116,331 

run-off of. 314 

typhoid fever in_ 11,116,331,332,334-336 

See also Chicago, typhoid at. 

current in, deflection of. 198 

dams in. 132-135,175,244,249,257,277,292 

description of. 134-135 

dilution of. 47, 

51-52,70,113-114,150,249,256,293 

speed increased by. 68, 

80,108,129,137,334,355 
with and without drainage-canal 

sewage, comparison of. 150 

See also Chicago, dilution at. 

effect of, on Mississippi River_ 31-34,59-65, 

70, 77,96,136,143,194,197,278,287 

floods on, effect of. 117, 

136,144,175,243,281,293,312 
relation of typhoid at St. Louis and. 240- 

241,243 

flow of. 51,58,70-71,150,159,256,334 

rate of... 17-18,108,114,136,151,233,333-334 

increase of, effect of. 137,287,324 

relation between bacteria and. 33 

improvement of, by drainage canal. 143, 

176,311,314 

investigation of. 143,165-168,207-208,259 

lakes and ponds on, micro-organisms in. 100 

typhoid germs and. 243-244 

micro-organisms in. 94-97,100 

pollution of. 150-197,265,266,270,287,323 

before canal opening. 52,53,68,80,323 

effect of, on Mississippi River. 59, 

65,70,79-80,129 

ultimate result of. 129 

profile of. 155 

plate showing. 150 

purification of. 52,80,163-164,203, 

209,213,218,220,231,232,245,257, 
286, 295, 313,322-325, 349, 353-354 

zone of. 68,80,324-325 

sedimentation in. 46,52, 

132-133,135-136,175,233-234,244, 
249, 256, 257, 277, 292-293, 311-312 

tributaries of, quality of.52,89 

turbidity of, relations of germ life and. 40, 

233-234 

typhoid longevity in. 96,119,202,233, 

237,248,250-253,256,265-270,277, 
282, 287, 289,290,292, 293, 295, 311 

water of, ammonia in.81-82 

ammonia in, charts showing.. 215 

analyses of. 53-57,66-67,86-87, 

161-163,168,171,173,184-185, 
188,189,190,194,195, 210-211 

after opening canal.86,87 

before opening canal.86,87 

chlorine in, chart showing. 215 

comparison of Mississippi River wa¬ 
ter and. 137,173, 

198,265,266,270,287,289,295,317 


Page. 

Illinois River—Continued, 
water of—Continued. 

comparison of Missouri River water 

and. 173,198,229, 

265,266,270,287,299,295,317,355 
comparison of tributaries’ waters 

and. 213 

experiments with, on guinea pigs. 262-263 

filtration of. 130-131 

mingling of Missisisppi water and, 
at intake. See Intake, min¬ 
gling at. 

nitrites in.:... 79-82,200-201 

oxygen in. 191-192,198 

potability of. 198,257,281,338 

quality of. 42,59,83,89-91,143,156,159- 

173,198,200,208, 289, 312, 353-355 
before and after opening of ca¬ 
nal, comparison of. 143,353-355 

variations in. 197,322 

total solids in. 312 

total solids in Mississippi water and, 

comparison of. 137 

Illness. S ee Morbidity. 

Infection, analysis and, relations of.10.5-106 

Injunction, prayer for. 7 

Intake, Bacillus coli communis at. 185, 

206.223,228,229 

Bacillus prodigiosus at. 39 

bacteria at. 22,25,26,31,37,42,183, 

185,205,206,211.226,227,230,231 

clarification at. 125 

description of. 125 

effect of Chicago sewage at. See Sew¬ 
age, Chicago, effect of. 

micro-organisms at.94-95 

mingling of Illinois, Mississippi, and 

Missouri waters at. 31-34,42,44, 

59-65,77,129,131,139,202,229-230,270 

degree of- 9,68,77-78,88,95,100,106,131, 

137,139,141, 196, 227, 229-230 

diagram showing. 44 

mingling at Detroit and, comparison 

of. 138,130 

reservoirs at. See St. Louis, reservoirs 
at. 

transfer of, typhoid reduced by. 43, 

45,110,125,339-340 

w r ater at, ammonia in. 66 

analyses of.J 53-57, 

66-67,76,83-84,185,180-190,211 

after opening canal. 84 

before opening canal. 83 

chlorine in.. 67 

comparison of tap and reservoir wa¬ 
ter and. 64 

effect of drainage canal on. See 
Sewage, Chicago, effect of. 

nitrites in. 66,70 

potability of. 280-282,287 

quality of. 97, 

104-105,117,175-176,323-324,327-328 

total solids in.60-63 

See also Mississippi River, water of; 
Missouri River, water of. 

Irons, E. E., work of. 208 

Ithaca, N. Y., typhoid fever at. 112,254 













































































INDEX. 


363 


J • Page. 

Jacksonville, Fla., typhoid fever at. 304 

Jefferson Barracks, Bacillus coli communis 

. 185 

bacteria at. 205 

typhoid fever at. 304 

water at, analyses of. 185,189,190,211 

Jeffries, S. B., appearance of, as counsel_ 10 

Johns, W. C., appearance of, as counsel_ 10 

Johnson, G. A., work of. 27 

Joliet, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at.. 184,206,260 

bacteria at. 22,23,25,29, 

184,204,206,210,212,216,260-261 

bacteriological laboratory at. 23 

river water at, ammonia in. 66,81,161,162,215 

analyses of. 54-57,66-67,87,161,162, 

168,171,184,188,189,194,210,122 

chlorine in. 67,214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

nitrites in. 66-81 

quality of. 68,83,169,172,208 

typhoid fever at. 11 

Jordan, E. O., qualifications of. 207 

testimony of. 207-246 


K. 


Kampsville, Ill.,Bacillus coli communis at. 185,206 

bacteria at. 185,204,206,211,213,216 

river water at, ammonia in. 215 

analysis of. 185,188,189,195,211 

chlorine in. 214 

quality of. 200,213 

Kankakee River, Bacillus coli communis in. 184, 

206,223 

bacteria in_ 183,184,204,206,210,223,260-261 

flow of. v 51,71,159 

pollution of. 150 

water of, analysis of. 163, 

168,171,184,188,189,210 
experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

quality of.213,217 

Kansas v. Colorado, citation of. 353 

Kansas City, river water at, chlorine in.... 174 

sewage of._. 174-175 

sewage of Chicago and, relative effects 

of, at St. Louis. 131,156 

typhoid fever at. 11 

Kansas River. See Kaw River. 

Kappa, Ill., water at, analysis of. 168 

Kaw River, water of, analyses of. 69 

water of, chlorine in. 59,80,99,174 

quality of. 174 

analyses made by.. .. 74 

Keiser, E. H., qualifications of. 74 

testimony of. 74-92 

water submitted to. 50 

Kingston, river water at, ammonia in. 66 

river water at, analyses of. 66-67 

chlorine in. 67 

nitrites in. 66 

Kinnicutt, L. P., qualifications of. 283-284 

testimony of.,. 284-287 

Kirchner, C. G., work of. 23 

Krans,-, experiments of, on bacteria in 

water. 101 


L. Page. 

La Salle, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at. 184, 

206,223,260 

bacteria at- 184,204,206,210,216,223,260-261 

flow at. ,5i 

river water at, ammonia in. 66,162,215 

anal/ses of. 66-67, 

162.168.171.184.188.189.195.210 

chlorine in. 67,214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

nitrites in. 66 

quality of. 68,169,213 

Laboratory conditions, actual conditions 

and, relations of. 35,40, 

101,233,235-237,248,267- 
268, 276-277, 292, 308, 345 

Laches, plaintiff charged with. 8 

Supreme Court on. 352 

Lake Michigan. See Michigan, Lake. 

'Lausanne, Switzerland, typhoid at. 256 

Lawrence, Mass., typhoid at.96,111 

Leeds, A. R., on aeration at Niagara Falls.. 113 

Libertyville, water at, analyses of. 168 

Little Vermilion River, water of, analysis of. 163 

Lochridge, E. E., qualifications of. 339 

testimony of. 339-347 

Lockport, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at... 184, 

223,260 

bacteria at. 22,25,182,184, 

204,210,212,216,223,260-261 
controlling works at, description of. 15-16,147 
' river water at, ammonia in.. 66,81,161,162,215 
analyses of. 54-57,66-67,87,161, 

162.168.171.184.188.189.194.210 

chlorine in. 67,214 

nitrites in.66,81 

quality of. 83,182,208 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

Long, J. H., on Illinois River pollution_ 89-90, 

159,181 

qualifications of. 158 

testimony of. 159-181 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition, relation of, 

to typhoid fever. 300,349 

Louisville, Ky., typhoid fever at.45,132 

Lowell, Mass., typhoid epidemic at... 109,110,254 


M. 


McHenry, Ill., water at, analysis of. 168 

McKees Creek, flow of. 159 

pollution of. 150 

Mackinaw River, flow on. 159 

pollution on. 150 

water of. analysis of. 168 

Macoupin Creek, flow of. 150,159 

pollution on. 150 

Madison, Wis., typhoid longevity experi¬ 
ments at. 252 

Mahomet, Ill., water at, analysis of. 168 

Malaria, diagnosis of. 241-243, 

255-256,297-304,318-321,326,329 
mortality from. 319,321,329,341 


See also Typhoid fever, diagnosis of; 
Fevers. 

Mannville County v. Worcester, citation of.. 353 



















































































364 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Market street, St. Louis, tap water at, 

bacteria in.25,26 

Mason, W. P., qualifications of. 275-276 

testimony of. 276-283 

Massachusetts, streams of, dilution of, com¬ 
pared to Mississippi River.. 274-275 
Massachusetts State Board of Health, ex¬ 
periments of,on bacteria 276-277,287 

Meade, Camp, typhoid and malaria at. 297 

Melosira, occurrence and tracing of. 94-95 

Michigan, Lake, bacteria in.21,28,187 

bacteria in, distinctive forms of, tracing 

of.27-34 

currents in. 157,187 

micro-organisms in.93-94 

distinctive forms of, tracing of.94,100 

pollution of. 15,147,157,186-187 

population tributary to. 15 

sewage accumulated in. 6,8 

typhoid longevity in. 252,268-270,282 

water of, analysis of. 87 

dilution by. See Chicago,dilution at. 
experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

quality of. 113,134.186-187 

Micro-organisms, definition of. 93 

effect of sewage on. 100 

occurrence of, inference from. 97-98,100 

investigation of. 93-97 

relations of bacteria and. 99 

Milk, connection of typhoid fever and. 280 

Millbury, epidemic at, cause of. 105 

Mills, H. F., on typhoid bacillus. 155-156 

Mills and Horrocks, typhoid experiments of. 

332-333 

Milwaukee, Wis., pollution by. 157 

Minneapolis, sewage of, relative effects of 
Chicago sewage and, at St. 

Louis. 156 

typhoid fever at. 10 

Mississippi River, Bacillus coli communis 

in. 185,206,223,224,228,229,272,289 

bacteria in. 20-26,31,32,42,183,185, 

203-206,211,223,226,227.230,231 

chart showing. 216 

basin of. 9 

basin of, population of... 95,104-105,115-116, 

127-128,151,271,315-317 

population of, sewage of. 9,47,95, 

115-117,127-128,271-272,331 

run-off from. 314 

typhoid fever in.. 10-11,47,116,121-122,129 
131,142,156,290,331-332,334-336 

use of streams in, as sewers. 353 

configuration of. 95 

dilution of, compared to Massachusetts 

streams. 274-275 

effect of drainage canpl on. 7-9,41,53,70,80, 

104. 105, 108, 122-123, 129, 164,167,169, 
175, 176, 199, 234, 249-250, 256-257, 324 

effect of Peoria sewage on. 164-167 

flow of. 274 

rate of. 18,151 

Illinois water and! commingling of_31-34, 

59-64,96,136,196 


Page. 

Mississippi River—Continued. 

Illinois water in, course taken by. 198 

effect of. 59,65,70,77, 

136,143,194,196,197,278,287 

micro-organisms in. 94-97,100 

mingling of Missouri River and, at 
intake. See Intake, mingling 
at. 

pollution of. 265,266,270,274,295 

population on. 9,95,104-105,115,127-128 

profile of. 155 

. plate showing. 150 

purification of. 222,272-275 

water of, analyses of. 53-57,66-67,76,83- 

84,168,173,185,188,189,190,211, 
analyses of, after canal opening 84,85,86,87 

before canal opening. 83,85,86,87 

chlorine in. 82,96,196 

comparison of Illinois and Missouri 

waters and. 137,198, 

265,266,270,287,289,295,317 
composition of, at New Orleans... 272-275 
filtration of, Chicago sewage and.. 117, 
122,129-131,156,281,296, 
317-318,327-328, 337, 338 

nitrites in. 79,96 

oxygen in. 198 

pollution of, ultimate effect of. 122-123,129 

potability of. 198, 

281-282,287,295-296,338 

purification of. 72,117 

quality of...42,53,69,72,78,91, 

104,117,121,156,175-176,198,199 

variations in. 197 

relations of, to typhoid at St. Louis. 63-64 
total solids in Illinois river and, 

comparison of. 137 

use of. 6,7 

Missouri, illness in. 7,257,303-304 

use of Mississippi River as sewer by_ 353 

Missouri v. Illinois and Chicago sanitary 
district, suit of, bill of com¬ 
plaint in. 6-7 

suit of, bill of complaint in, answer to.. 7-9 

counsel in. 10 

decision of Supreme Court on_ 351-355 

importance of. 5 

summary of, statement concerning. 5-6 

testimony in, for defendants. 143-308 

for plaintiff. 11-143,318-350 

witnesses in. 9-10 

Missouri River, Bacillus coli communis in.. 185, 

206,223,224,228,229 

bacteria in.22,25,26,32,42,183, 

185,203,205,206,211,223,226,231 

basin of, population of_ 115-116,151,315-317 

population of, sewage of. 116,257,331 

run-off of... 314 

typhoid fever in. li, 

116,131,156,331-332,334-336 

micro-organisms in. 94-97 

mingling of Mississippi water and, at 
intake. See Intake. 

pollution of. 116,257,265,266,270,287,331 















































































INDEX 


365 


Page. 

Missouri River—Continued. 

profile of. 155 

silt in... 141 

water of, analyses of. 54,57, 

69,85,89,173,185,189,190,211 
analyses of, after opening canal.... 85,87 

before opening canal.85,87 

chlorine in. 79-80,174 

comparison of Illinois water and... 173, 

229,265,266,289,295,317 
comparison of Illinois and Missis¬ 
sippi waters and. 198, 

265,266,270,287,289,295,317,355 

effect of Kaw River on. 59,69,80,99,174 

filtration of. 117,122,129-131,156, 

281,296,317-318,327-328,337,338 

nitrites in. 91 

oxygen in. 198 

potability of. 198,257,338 

quality of. 42,53,69, 

77-78,91,156,174,198,257,327-328 

variations in. 197 

sedimentation in. 141 

Mitchell, Ill., mingling of waters at. 197 

Morbidity, mortality and, relations of. 46,106-143 

Morris, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at _ 184, 

206,223,260 

bacteria at. 183,184,204,206, 

216,217,218,219,220,223, 260-261 

river water at, ammonia in. 162,215 

analyses of. 162,168,171,184,188,189,194 

chlorine in.214,217,218,219 

experiments with, on guinea p:gs. 262 

quality of. 170,208 

Mortality, illness and, relations of. 46,106,143 

percentage of, calculation of. 117— 

118,239,254,278-279,294,314,347 
Mud. See Sediments; Floods. 

Munich, typhoid fever at. 45 

water of, bacteria in. 101 

water of, self-purification of. 266 


N. 


Navigation, obstruction of, prohibition of.. 352 

New Albany, Ind., typhoid fever at. 115 

New Haven, Conn., typhoid fever at. 111-112 

New Orleans, La., dilution at. 272,274 

distances from, to cities above. 271 

malaria at. 298 

self-purification at. 222-223 

water at, analyses and character of.. 272-274 

New York, typhoid at. HO 

Newburyport, Mass., typhoid fever at. Ill 

Niagara Falls, aeration at. 113 

typhoid fever at. 112 

Nitrates, occurrence of. 67,75,76,198,313 

occurrence of, inference from.97,197 

Nitrites, canal opening and, relations of.... 64, 

70,75,198 

occurrence of. 66,75,76,78-81,198,313 

inference from. 74,97,179 

Nuisance, character of. 353-354 

creation of. 7,8,351 


O. 


Page. 


Oder River, self-purification of. 266 

Omaha, sewage of, relative effect of Chicago 

sewage and, at St. Louis. 156 

typhoid fever at. li 

Ottawa, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at. 184, 

206,223,260 

bacteria at. 184,204, 


206,210,216,218,219,220.223,260-261 

river water at, ammonia in. 161,215 

analyses of. 161,168, 

184,188,189,194,195,210,218,219 

chlorine in. 214 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

quality of. 208-209,213,286 

typhoid fever at. 11 

Oxidation of sewage, bacteria and, relations 

of. 234-235 

processes of. 163,234-235 


zone of, transfer of, by canal dilution .... 68, 


80,324-325 

See also Bacteria, saprophytic. 

Oxygen, dissolved, determination of. 191 

Oysters, relation of typhoid fever and, in St. 

Louis.'.■_ 119-120 


Palmer, A. W., qualifications of. 187 

testimony of.*. 187-202 

Parchment sacks, typhoid experiments in. 

See Sacks. 

Paris, France, self-purification at. 266 

Pearl, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at. 260 

bacteria at. 260-261 

river water at, analyses of. 168,171 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 263 

quality of. 170 

Pekin, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at. 184 

206,228,229 

bacteria at and near. 25,183,184, 

204,206,210,216,226,230 

industrial wastes at. 144-145,193,209 

river water at, ammonia in. 66,162,215 

analyses of. 162, 

164,168,171,184,188,189,210 

chlorine in. 67,214 

nitrites in. 66 

quality of. 169 

typhoid fever at. 11 

Pennsylvania v. Wheeling and Belmont 

Bridge Co., citation of. 351 

Peoria, Ill., Bacillus coli communis near... 184,260 
bacteria near.. 22,25,30,33,183,184,226,260-261 

bacteriological laboratory at. 23,208,225 

effect of drainage canal at. 33-34,36 

flow at. 159 

industrial wastes at. 144-145,150,164-165 

effect of, on typhoid germs.. 250-252,302 

pollution at. 36,58,71,164,167,193 

effect of, on Illinois River. 36, 

58,71,167,193,209,220-221,226 

river water at, ammonia in.81-82,161,162 

analyses of. 66-67,87,161,168,171,184 

after opening canal. 87,89-91 

before opening canal. 87,89-91,161,162 






















































































366 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Peoria, Ill.—Continued. 

river water at—Continued. 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 263 


nitrites in.80-82 

quality of. 42,57, 

68,83,89-91,161,165,167,169,170 

typhoid fever at... 11 

typhoid longevity experiments at_ 250-252 

Peoria, Lake, water of, pollution in.... 243,287 

Philadelphia, typhoid at. 110 

Philippines, malaria in. 298 

Pittsburg, Pa., self-purification at. 107-108 

typhoid fever at. 45,108,110 

Plaintiff, bill of complaint of. 6-7 

counsel and witnesses for. 9-10 

testimony for. 11-143,318-350 

Plankton, destruction of bacteria by. 41 

Plymouth, Pa., typhoid at. 110-111,254 

Pollution, effect of, on Bacillus typhosus. 

See Bacillus, typhosus, lon¬ 
gevity of. 

evidences of. 74,97-98, 

117-118,126,140,178-180,197,199, 
222,244,245,258,279,288,322-324 

infectious pollution and. 107,199,263 

oxidation of. See Oxidation. 

prevention of. 153 

Pontiac, Ill., water of, analysis of. 168 


Population of cities, minimum considered in 

sewage calculations.. 95,104,127,128 
See also particular river basins, cities, etc. 
Potability, evidence of. 91-92,105,180-181,186 


standard of. 105,327-328 

See also particular places, streams, etc. 
Potomac River, typhoid fever carried by... 244 

Prescription, right of. 352 

Profile of rivers, Chicago to St. Louis, plate 

showing. 150 

Pumping, use of, in past years. 8,12, 

13.15,51,146.148 

R. 

Randolph, Isham, qualifications of. 145 

testimony of. 145-152 

Rauch, John, investigations of.. 153 

Ravold, A N., qualifications of. 19 

testimony of. 19-47,148 

Reservoirs, self-purification in. 287 

time that water remains in. 238,278 

See also St. Louis, reservoirs at. 

Rhode Island v. Massachusetts, citation of. 352 

Rivers, use of, as sewers. 353 

Rotterdam, typhoid fever at. 45 

Rush, W. II., work of. 23 

Russell, II. L., experiments by. 235 

qualifications of. 246-247 

testimony of. 247-258 


S. 

Sackett, W. G., work of. 208 

Sacks, parchment and celloidin, typhoid ex¬ 
periments w'ith_ 235-236,248-249, 

250-252,268-270,290, 
325-326. 345-346, 355 


St. Charles, Mo., sewage of. 158 

typhoid fever at. 11 

typhoid fever at St. Louis and. 316,338 


156 


156 


Page. 

St. Clair River,-Mich., discharge of. 138 

St. Helen’s Smelting Co. v. Tipping, citation 

of. 353 

St. Louis, bacteriological laboratory at. 23,208,225 
Chicago and Kansas City sewage at, 

relative effects of. 131,156 

Chicago and Omaha sewage at, relative 

effects of. 

Chicago and St. Paul sewage at, rela 

tions of. 

Chicago sewage at. See sewage, Chicago, 
conditions at Detroit and, comparison 

of. 138-139 

exposition at, relation of typhoid fever 

and. 300,349 

health reports of. 346-347 

intake at. See Intake. 

Jefferson Barracks at. See Jefferson 
Barracks. 

malaria in. 241-243, 

255-256,297-299,303-304,319 
Mississippi and Missouri rivers at, stage 

. of. diagram showing. 44 

population above. 95,103-105, 

115-116,127-128,151,315-317 

protection of water supply of. 117,122 

reservoirs at. 24,125 

Bacillus coli communis in. 224-225 

efficiency of. 64,69 

■water of, ammonia in. 66 

analyses of. 66-67,75,87 

bacteria in. 22,25.40.41 

chlorine in. 67 

comparison of tap and intake 

water and. 64 

nitrites in. 66 

quality of. 24,69 

See also Intake. 

tap water at, ammonia in. 66 

analyses of. 66-67,185,189-190,211 

Bacillus coli communis in. 185,223,225 

bacteria in. 22-26,185,205,211 

chlorine in. 67 

comparison of reservoir and intake 

water and. 

nitrites in. 

quality of. 

typhoid fever at, alleged increase of. 42, 

45, 106, 117, 126-127, 140, 142- 
143, 243, 246, 255-258, 298-304, 
316, 326, 330, 332, 342, 350, 354 

alleged increase of, cause of. 113,117, 

119-120,127,142, 240, 244, 280, 
303-304, 313, 316, 324, 326,350 

reports of physicians and. 72,106, 

241-243,298-299.302, 
318, 320-321, 326, 350 
Bissels Point and, relations of.. 43, 45,110 

diagnosis of. 241-243,246,255-256, 

297-304,318-321,326,329,346,354 

diagram showing. 44 

disturbance of mud and, connection 

of. 45-46 

malaria and. See Malaria. 

mortality from. 110,126-127, 

129,240-243, 255, 299,305,340-345 
See also Mortality, percentage of. 


64 

66 

24 


















































































INDEX. 


307 


St. Louis—Continued. 

typhoid fever at—Continued, 
opening of drainage canal and 


Page. 


42-45, 


68.142,198,342.354 
See also Sewage, Chicago, effect 
of; Bacillus typhosus, trans¬ 
mission of. 

records of, 1890-1902. 45 

relation of Illinois River floods and. 240- 


241,243 

relation of Mississippi River water 

and. 44,63-64 

typhoid in Chicago and, relations of. 240,278- 

279.290,305,306,334-336, 
338, 339-340, 348-349, 355 
See also Bacillus typhosus, trans¬ 
mission of. 

typhoid in Mississippi basin and... 10-11,115- 

116,121-122,129,142,280, 
290, 303, 331-332, 334-336 
water of, Chicago sewage and. See Sew¬ 
age, Chicago, effect of. 

filtration of, necessity for. 131,355 

relation of drainagecanal to_ 117, 

122,129-131,156, 281,296, 
317-318, 327-328, 337, 338 

quality of. . 97, 

104-105,117,127,140-142,280,287 

before opening of canal. 72, 

87,126-127,140,142 

wells in, connection of typhoid and. 71, 

120-121,280,299,305 

St. Paul, sewage of, relative effects of Chicago 

sewage and, at St. Louis. 156 

typhoid fever at. 10,305 

Samples for analysis. See Water, samples 
of. 


Sangamon River, Bacillus coli communis in. 185, 


206,223 

bacteria in. 185,211,223 

flow of. 159 

pollution on. 150 

water of, analysis of. 163, 


168,171.185,188,189,277 


quality of. 213,224 

Sanitary analysis. See Analysis. 

Sanitary district, area and location of. 147 

population of.... 14,35,36,114,116,147-149,155 

relations of Illinois and. 7 

sewage of. See Sewage, Chicago. 

Saunders, E. W., qualifications of. 318 

testimony of. 318-319 

Savage, W. G., experiments of. 238 

Sayer, W. S., work of. 208 

Schule, F. W., work of. 208 

Schuylkill River, longevity of bacteria in.. 309-310 

population, etc., on. 316 

Sedgwick, W. T., qualifications of. 106-107 

testimony of. 107-124,347-350 

Sedgwick-Rafter tests, use of. 27 

Sedimentation, bacteria and, relations of. 135-136, 


249,266,277,287,292-293 


Bacillus typhosus and, relations of... 294,302 

dilution and, relations of. 233-234,293,311 

process of. 135,233-234 

purification and, relations of. 42,80, 

105,108-109,114,124,128-129 


Page. 

Sedimentation—Continued. 

time required for.99,115,132 

turbidity and, relations of. 40,140,233,234 

See also Sediments; Illinois River, sedi¬ 
mentation in. 

Sediments, stirring of, effect of. 45-46, 

105, 108, 109, 117, 128, 135-136, 

138, 144, 175, 243, 287, 293, 312 
typhoid germs in. 109, 


136,139, 238, 243, 253-254, 
266, 280, 287, 295, 302, 324 


identification of. 238,253-254 

Seine, River, purification of. 266 

Self-purification, dilution and. See Dilu¬ 
tion, purification by. 

distance and time required for. 72- 


73, 102, 104, 108, 112, 118, 
155-156, 266, 324-325, 354 

processes of. 107-108,130,234-235 

theory of. 112,155-156,288 

assertion of. 9,102,222-223,232,263,265 

denial of. 107-108,111,234-235,347 

examples of. 102.222-223,266,271-272 

zone of, location of.. 68,80,263,265-266,324-325 
See also Illinois River, purification of. 

Seneca, Ill., bacteria at. 218,219,220 

river water at, chlorine in. 218,219 

Septic tank, comparison of drainage canal to 284- 

285,322,336-337 

comparison of Illinois and Michigan 


Canal to.. 131-132 

comparison of Illinois River at Peoria 

to. 164,193 

Sewage, average urban discharge of. 271-272 

Bacillus coli communis in...97-98 

dilution of. See Dilution. 


effect of, on pathogenic bacteria. 102, 238, 

* 248,246,253,257,264-266,268- 

270,276,278,282,285.289-290, 
292,302,307-308,325-326,350 

on micro-organisms. 100 

disposal of. 284,353 

Sewage, Chicago, accumulations of.... 6,8,43,157 

amount of. 7,35-36,148-150 

analyses of. 83,284-285 

composition of... 172,284 

dilution of. See Chicago, dilution at. 

disposal of. 6,8,134,148-150,337-338 

investigations for. 160-161 

effect of, at Grafton. 34,80,164,167, 

224,234,250,281,286,289,295,313 

at Peoria. 33-34,80 

at St. Louis. 42-44,83-84,97,104, 

108-109,113-115,122,126-127,141, 
156,175,207,240-243,256-258,266, 
286,293,296,313, 323-324, 326, 354 
See also St. Louis, typhoid at; 

Bacillus typhosus. 

on Illinois River. 8,193,198,286,322 

on lower rivers. 68,70, 

80,83,108-109,113-114,117,164, 
167,169,175, 207, 234, 244, 286 

on Mississippi River. 7, 

8,9,41,53,70,80, 95, 104, 108, 114-115, 
122-123,127-129,156,164,167,169,175, 
176, 199, 234,249-250,256-257,287,324 
Kansas City sewage and, relations of. 131,156 



































































368 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Sewage—Continued. 

longevity of typhoid germs in. 238,248 

257,266,268-270,285,350 
See also Bacillus typhosus, longevity 
of. 

menace of, to St. Louis. 114-115,141,266 

Omaha sewage and, relations of. 156 

oxidation of, point of, transfer of, by 

drainage canal.68,80 

pollution by. See Pollution, 
pumping of. See Pumping. 

purification of. 275,338 

See also Self-purification. 

St. Paul sewage and, relations of. 156 

sewage of other cities and, relative effect 

of, at St. Louis. 115-117,131,156 

transmission of, to St. Louis.. 104,113-114,117 

time of. 16-19,96,128,136,354 

Sewers, use of rivers as. 353 

See also Chicago, sewers of. 

Silt, bacteria and, sedimentation of. 141 

Smith, E. G., qualifications of. 290-291 

testimony of. 291-296 

Smith, H. E., qualifications of. 321-322 

testimony of. 322-330 

Smith, Theobald, qualifications of. 288 

testimony of. 288-290 

Soils, longevity of Bacillus typhosus in. 238, 

v 247-248,253-254,276,278,294 

South Bend, Ind., water at, analysis of_ 168 

South Platte River, pollution in. 295 

Spoon River, Bacillus coli communis in.... 260 

bacteria in. 260-261 

flow of. 159 

pollution on. 150 

water of, analysis of. 168,171 

experiments with, on guinea pigs... 263 

Springer, W. M., appearance of, as counsel.. 10 

States, rights of. 353 

Steamers, passage of, deposits stirred up 

by. 135-136 

Stephanodiscus, occurrence and tracing of.. 94-95 

Stevens, F. L., work of. 208 

Streptococcus, occurrence of, significance of. 230 
Sunlight, effect of, on Bacillus typhosus... 34-35, 

40-41 

Supreme Court, United States, decision of... 355 

jurisdiction of. 351-352 

opinion of. 351-355 

Synedra pulchella, var. subprolongata, 

occurrence and tracing of.... 94,100 


Page. 

Typhoid fever,diagnosis of. 241-243,255-256, 

297-304,318-321,326,329,346 

epidemics of. 44-46, 

110-112,123-124,137-139,254 

increase of, significance of. 300,305 

incubation of, time of. 138 

infection with, difficulty of. 245 

means of. 305 

malaria and, confusion of. 241, 

243,255-256,297-304 

morbidity and mortality from. 121-122 

relations of. 46,106,122,143 

mortality from... 10-11, 116, 122,129,241-243, 
255,299,305,331,335-336,340-345 
occurrence of, at St. Louis. See St. 

Louis, typhoid at. 

in American and foreign cities. 45 

See also Cities above St. Louis, 
in Illinois, Mississippi, and Missouri 

river basin, records of. 10-11,116,331 
relation of, to typhoid at St. 

Louis. 116,121-122,129, 

142,280,290,331-332,334-336 

normal rate of. 121 

pollution shown by. See Pollution, 
evidences of. 

physician’s reports and, relations of.. 72, 106, 

241-243, 298-299,302, 
318, 320-321, 326,350 

rural districts and. 254,294,314 

See also Bacillus typhosus. 

Typho-malaria. See Malaria; Typhoid. 

V. 

Van Ornum, J. L., samples of water collected 

by. 19 

qualifications of. 16 

testimony of. 16-19 

Vaporization, purification by. 9 

Vaughan, V. C., qualifications of. 303 

testimony of. 303-305 

Vermilion River, Bacillus coli communis in. 184, 

206,223 

bacteria in. 184,204,206,210,223 

flow of. iso 

pollution of. 150 

water of, analysis of. 163, 

* 168,171,184.188,189,210 

quality of. 213 

Vienna, typhoid fever at. 45 

W. 


T. 


Tabellaria, occurrence and tracing of.94,100 

Taussig, A. E., testimony of. 321 

Tedesche, L. G., work of. 23 

Teichmann, W. C., qualifications of...*_47-48 

testimony of. 48-73 

Testimony for defendant, abstract of_ 143-351 

Testimony for plaintiff, abstract of.11-143 

Thayer, W. S., qualifications and testi¬ 
mony of. 305-306 

Todd, James, appearance of, as counsel_ 10 

Tuberculosis, fever from, identification of... 321 


Turbidity, bacteria and, relations of. 40,141,233-234 


Washington, D. C., typhoid fever at. 123,244 

Water, analyses of, methods of. 166 

analyses of. See also Analysis. 

consumption of, in cities. 148-149,271-272. 

flow of. See Flow, 
pollution of. See Pollution. 

potability of. 91-92, 

105,143,180-181,244,327-328 
See also Pollution, evidences of; and 
particular streams and places. 

samples of, collection of- 48-50,143,161,166, 

181-182,208,225-222,231,322-323,327 
typhoid longevity in. See Bacillus ty¬ 
phosus, longevity of. 





































































INDEX. 


869 


Page. 

Water, running, mingling of, laws of.136-137 

purification of. See Self-purification, 
sedimentation in. See Sedimentation; 
Sediments. 

transmission of typhoid by. See Bacil¬ 
lus typhosus, transmission of. 
Water bacteria*, effect of, on typhoid bacill . 40, 

41,101,263-264 

Watershed, natural, division by. 6,355 

Waterville, Md., typhoid-epidemic at. 280 

Wells, relation of typhoid fever and. 71, 

120-121,280,314 

See also St. Louis, wells at. 

Werner, —., Bacillus prodigiosus found by. 39 

Wesley, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at_ 206,223 

bacteria at. 183, 

204,206,210,216,220,223 

river water at, ammonia in.:_215,220 

analysis of. 168,171,188,189,210 

chlorine in. 214 

quality of. 169,170,197 

Weston, R. S., qualifications of. 271 

testimony of. 271-275 

Wheaton, Ill., river water at, analysis of... 168 

Whipple, G. C., qualifications of. 92-93 

samples of water sent to. 19 

irr 194—07-24 


Page. 

Whipple, G. C.—Continued. 

testimony of. 93-103 

work of. 27-93 

Widal test, use of. 302,319-321,326,346 

Willard, Major, on flow in drainage canal... 14 

Williams, Benezette, qualifications of. 11 

testimony of. 11-16 

Williams, Gardner S., qualifications of_ 133-134 

testimony of.*.. 134-143 

Wilmington, Ill., Bacillus coli communis at. 184, 

206,223 

bacteria at.... 183,184,204,206,210,223,260-261 


water at, analyses of.. 168,171,184,188,189,210 
experiments with, on guinea pigs... 262 

quality of. 213 

Wisconsin v. Duluth, citation of. 355 

Witnesses, lists of. 9-10 

Woerner, W. F., appearance of, as counsel.. 10 

Woolner, Adolph, jr., testimony of. 145 

Z. 

Zeit, F. R., experiments of. 235 

qualifications of. 259 

testimony of. 259-271 

Zurich, sewage of, purification of. 102,266 


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CLASSIFICATION OF THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL 

SURVEY. 


[Water-Supply Paper No. 194.] 

The publications of the United States Geological Survey consist of (1) Annual 
Reports, (2) Monographs, (3) Professional Papers, (4) Bulletins, (5) Mineral 
Resources, (6) Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers, (7) Topographic Atlas of United 
States—folios and separate sheets thereof, (8) Geologic Atlas of United States— 
folios thereof. The classes ntimbered 2, 7, and 8 are sold at cost of publication; the 
others are distributed free. A circular giving complete lists can be had on application. 
Most of the above publications can be obtained or consulted in the following ways: 

1. A limited number are delivered to the Director of the Survey, from whom they 
can be obtained, free of charge (except classes 2, 7, and 8), on application. 

2. A certain number are delivered to Senators and Representatives in Congress for 
distribution. 

3. Other copies are deposited with the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, 
D. C., from whom they can be had at prices slightly above cost. 

4. Copies of all Government publications are furnished to the principal public 
libraries in the large cities throughout the United States, where they can be consulted 
by those interested. 

The Professional Papers, Bulletins, and Water-Supply Papers treat of a variety of 
subjects, and the total number issued is large. They have therefore been classified 
into the following series: A, Economic geology; B, Descriptive geology; C, System¬ 
atic geology and paleontology; D, Petrography and mineralogy; E, Chemistry and 
physics; F, Geography; G, Miscellaneous; H, Forestry; I, Irrigation; J, Water stor¬ 
age; K, Pumping water; L, Quality of water; M, General hydrographic investiga¬ 
tions; N, Water power; 0, Underground waters; P, Hydrographic progress reports. 
This paper is the twentieth in Series L, the complete list of which follows (WS= 
Water-Supply Paper). 

SERIES L, QUALITY OF WATER. 

WS 3. Sewage irrigation, by G. W. Rafter. 1897. 100 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 22. Sewage irrigation, Pt. II, by G. W. Rafter. 1899. 100 pp., 7 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 72. Sewage pollution near New York City, by M. O. Leighton. 1902. 75 pp., 8 pis. 

WS 76. Flow of rivers near New \ T ork City, by H. A. Pressey. 1903. 108 pp., 13 pis. 

WS 79. Normal and polluted waters in northeastern United States, by M. O. Leighton. 1903. 192 pp., 
15 pis. 

WS 103. Review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, by E. B. 
Goodell. 1904. 120 pp. 

WS 108. Quality of water in the Susquehanna River drainage basin, by M. O. Leighton, with an 
introductory chapter on physiographic features, by G. B. Hollister. 1904. 76 pp., 4 pis. 
WS 113. Strawboard and oil wastes, by R. L. Sackett and Isaiah Bowman. 1905. 52 pp., 4 pis. 

WS 121. Preliminary report on the pollution of Lake Champlain, by M. O. Leighton. 1905. 119 pp., 
13 pis. 

WS 144. The normal distribution of chlorine in the natural waters of New York and New England, 
by D. D. Jackson. 1905. 31 pp., 5 pis. 

WS 151. Field assay of water, by M. O. Leighton. 1905. 77 pp., 4 pis. (Out of stock.) 

WS 152. A review of the laws forbidding pollution of inland waters in the United States, second 
edition, by E. B. Goodell. 1905. 149 pp. 

WS 161. Quality of water in upper Ohio River basin and at Erie, Pa., by S. J. Lewis. 1906. 114 pp., 
6 pis. (Out of stock.) 

I 


4 4 1 


II 


SERIES LIST. 


WS 179. Prevention of stream pollution by distillery refuse, based on investigations at Lynchburg, 
Ohio, by Herman Stabler. 1906. 34 pp., 1 pi. 

WS 185. Investigations on the purification of Boston sewage, by C. E. A. Winslow and Earle B. 
Phelps. 1906. 163 pp. 

WS 186. Stream pollution by acid-iron wastes, a report based on investigations made at Shelby, Ohio, 
by Herman Stabler. 1906. 36 pp., 1 pi. 

WS 189. The prevention of stream pollution by strawboard waste, by Earle Bernard Phelps. 1906. 
29 pp., 2 pis. 

WS 192. The Potomac River basin: Geographic history—rainfall and stream flow—pollution, typhoid 
fever, and character of water—relation of soils and forest cover to quality and quantity of 
surface water—effect of industrial wastes on fishes, by H. N. Parker, Bailey Willis, R. H. 
Bolster, W. W. Ashe, and M. C. Marsh. 1907. 364 pp., 10 pis. 

WS 193. Quality of surface waters in Minnesota, by R. B. Dole and F. F. Wesbrook. 1907. 171 pp., 7 pis. 
WS 194. Pollution of Illinois and Mississippi rivers by Chicago sewage; a digest of the testimony 
taken in the case of the State of Missouri v. the State of Illinois and the Sanitary District 
of Chicago, by M. O. Leighton. 1907. 369 pp., 2 pis. 

Correspondence should be addressed to 

The Director, 

United States Geological Survey, 

Washington, D. C. 


April, 1907. 


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